CHAPTER 1: EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
UNIT 1: PSYCHOLOGY'S EARLY HISTORY
The term psychology comes from two Greek words, psyche, meaning the soul and logos, referring to the
study of the subject. → The term psychology later required its literal meaning, ‘the study of the mind’.
1.1.1 A SCIENCE IS BORN
Psychology’s intellectual parents were the disciplines of philosophy physiology. The philosophers and
physiologists who were interested in the mind viewed questions about psychology as fascinating within
their respective fields.
It was a German professor, Willem Wundt, who eventually changed this view. Wundt began a campaign
to make psychology an independent discipline rather than a stepchild of philosophy or physiology. →
(Wilhelm Wundt’s campaign was so successful that today he is widely characterized as the founder of
psychology).
Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal laboratory for research in psychology at the University of
Leipzig in Germany in 1879. → (Historians christened 1879 as psychology’s ‘date of birth’ in recognition
of this landmark event).
Soon after Wilhelm Wundt established the first journal devoted to publishing research on psychology. →
Because of Wilhelm Wundt psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience.
1.1.2 THE BATTLE OF THE ‘SCHOOLS’ BEGINS
In psychology the first two major schools of thought, structuralism and functionalism, were involved in the
first great intellectual battles in the field.
Structuralism: was based on the idea that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its
basic elements and to investigate how these elements are related. → Structuralists wanted to identify the
fundamental components of conscious experience, such as sensations, feelings and images.
Most of the structuralists' work concerned sensation and perception in vision, hearing and touch. → To
examine the contents of consciousness, the structuralists depended on the method of introspection.
Introspection: the careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience. →
Introspection requires training to make the subject more objective and more aware.
Functionalism: was based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of
consciousness, rather than its structure. → Consciousness, it was argued, consists of a continuous flow
of thoughts.
In analysing consciousness into its ‘elements’ structuralists were looking at static points in that flow.
Stream of consciousness: a person’s thoughts and conscious reactions to events, perceived as a
conscious flow.
Structuralists were naturally attracted to the lab, but the functionalists were more interested in how people
adapt their behaviour to the demands of the real world around them. Instead of focusing on sensation and
perception, the functionalists began to investigate mental testing, patterns of development in children, the
effectiveness of educational practices and behavioural differences between the sexes.
3
, The practical orientation of functionalism helped to promote the development of two important
descendants: behaviourism and applied psychology.
1.1.3 FREUD BRINGS THE UNCONSCIOUS INTO THE PICTURE
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian physician whose theories made him one of the most influential - and
controversial - intellectual figures of the 20th century. Freud’s approach to psychology grew out of his
efforts to treat mental disorders.
His work with patients persuaded Freud of the existence of what he called the unconscious.
Unconscious: contains thoughts, memories and desires that are well below the surface of conscious
awareness, but that still have a great influence on behaviour. → Freud based his concept of the
unconscious on a variety of observations.
Sigmund Freud eventually concluded that psychological disturbances are largely caused by personal
conflicts existing on an unconscious level. →It is important to emphasise that the concept of the
unconscious was a major departure from the dominant belief at the time that people are fully aware of the
forces affecting their behaviour.
Psychoanalytic: theory attempts to explain personality, motivation and mental disorders by focusing on
unconscious determinants of behaviour.
1.1.4 WATSON ALTERS PSYCHOLOGY’S COURSE WITH BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorism: is a theoretical orientation based on the concept that scientific psychology should study
observable behaviour. → John B. Watson proposed that psychologists abandon the study of
consciousness altogether and focus exclusively on behaviours they could observe directly.
In Watson’s view, mental processes are not a proper subject for scientific study because they are
ultimately private events. → Consequently, if psychology was to be a science, it would have to give up
consciousness as its subject matter and become instead the science of behaviour.
Behaviourism: refers to any overt response or activity by an organism. → (Behavourism’s approach also
contributed to the rise of animal research in psychology).
John B. Watson to an extreme position on psychology’s oldest fundamental question of nature versus
nurture. He argued that we are made and not born. He therefore discounted the importance of heredity as
a whole and maintained that behaviour is governed entirely by the environment.
1.1.5 SKINNER QUESTIONS FREE WILL AS BEHAVIORISM FLOURISHES
B.F. Skinner did not deny the existence of internal mental events. However, he insisted that they could
not be studied scientifically. Skinner also emphasised how environmental factors form behaviour.
The fundamental principle of behaviour documented by Skinner is deceptively simple:organisms tend to
repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes, and they tend to not repeat responses that lead to
neutral or negative outcomes.
Skinner suggests that all behaviour is fully governed by external stimuli. In other words, your behaviour is
determined in predictable ways by lawful principles, just as the flight of an arrow is governed by the laws
of physics.
4
UNIT 1: PSYCHOLOGY'S EARLY HISTORY
The term psychology comes from two Greek words, psyche, meaning the soul and logos, referring to the
study of the subject. → The term psychology later required its literal meaning, ‘the study of the mind’.
1.1.1 A SCIENCE IS BORN
Psychology’s intellectual parents were the disciplines of philosophy physiology. The philosophers and
physiologists who were interested in the mind viewed questions about psychology as fascinating within
their respective fields.
It was a German professor, Willem Wundt, who eventually changed this view. Wundt began a campaign
to make psychology an independent discipline rather than a stepchild of philosophy or physiology. →
(Wilhelm Wundt’s campaign was so successful that today he is widely characterized as the founder of
psychology).
Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal laboratory for research in psychology at the University of
Leipzig in Germany in 1879. → (Historians christened 1879 as psychology’s ‘date of birth’ in recognition
of this landmark event).
Soon after Wilhelm Wundt established the first journal devoted to publishing research on psychology. →
Because of Wilhelm Wundt psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience.
1.1.2 THE BATTLE OF THE ‘SCHOOLS’ BEGINS
In psychology the first two major schools of thought, structuralism and functionalism, were involved in the
first great intellectual battles in the field.
Structuralism: was based on the idea that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its
basic elements and to investigate how these elements are related. → Structuralists wanted to identify the
fundamental components of conscious experience, such as sensations, feelings and images.
Most of the structuralists' work concerned sensation and perception in vision, hearing and touch. → To
examine the contents of consciousness, the structuralists depended on the method of introspection.
Introspection: the careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience. →
Introspection requires training to make the subject more objective and more aware.
Functionalism: was based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of
consciousness, rather than its structure. → Consciousness, it was argued, consists of a continuous flow
of thoughts.
In analysing consciousness into its ‘elements’ structuralists were looking at static points in that flow.
Stream of consciousness: a person’s thoughts and conscious reactions to events, perceived as a
conscious flow.
Structuralists were naturally attracted to the lab, but the functionalists were more interested in how people
adapt their behaviour to the demands of the real world around them. Instead of focusing on sensation and
perception, the functionalists began to investigate mental testing, patterns of development in children, the
effectiveness of educational practices and behavioural differences between the sexes.
3
, The practical orientation of functionalism helped to promote the development of two important
descendants: behaviourism and applied psychology.
1.1.3 FREUD BRINGS THE UNCONSCIOUS INTO THE PICTURE
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian physician whose theories made him one of the most influential - and
controversial - intellectual figures of the 20th century. Freud’s approach to psychology grew out of his
efforts to treat mental disorders.
His work with patients persuaded Freud of the existence of what he called the unconscious.
Unconscious: contains thoughts, memories and desires that are well below the surface of conscious
awareness, but that still have a great influence on behaviour. → Freud based his concept of the
unconscious on a variety of observations.
Sigmund Freud eventually concluded that psychological disturbances are largely caused by personal
conflicts existing on an unconscious level. →It is important to emphasise that the concept of the
unconscious was a major departure from the dominant belief at the time that people are fully aware of the
forces affecting their behaviour.
Psychoanalytic: theory attempts to explain personality, motivation and mental disorders by focusing on
unconscious determinants of behaviour.
1.1.4 WATSON ALTERS PSYCHOLOGY’S COURSE WITH BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorism: is a theoretical orientation based on the concept that scientific psychology should study
observable behaviour. → John B. Watson proposed that psychologists abandon the study of
consciousness altogether and focus exclusively on behaviours they could observe directly.
In Watson’s view, mental processes are not a proper subject for scientific study because they are
ultimately private events. → Consequently, if psychology was to be a science, it would have to give up
consciousness as its subject matter and become instead the science of behaviour.
Behaviourism: refers to any overt response or activity by an organism. → (Behavourism’s approach also
contributed to the rise of animal research in psychology).
John B. Watson to an extreme position on psychology’s oldest fundamental question of nature versus
nurture. He argued that we are made and not born. He therefore discounted the importance of heredity as
a whole and maintained that behaviour is governed entirely by the environment.
1.1.5 SKINNER QUESTIONS FREE WILL AS BEHAVIORISM FLOURISHES
B.F. Skinner did not deny the existence of internal mental events. However, he insisted that they could
not be studied scientifically. Skinner also emphasised how environmental factors form behaviour.
The fundamental principle of behaviour documented by Skinner is deceptively simple:organisms tend to
repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes, and they tend to not repeat responses that lead to
neutral or negative outcomes.
Skinner suggests that all behaviour is fully governed by external stimuli. In other words, your behaviour is
determined in predictable ways by lawful principles, just as the flight of an arrow is governed by the laws
of physics.
4
