Chemistry Notes

This document provides a structured overview of Crystal Field Stabilization Energy (CFSE) in octahedral complexes. It explains the splitting of d-orbitals in an octahedral crystal field and the resulting stabilization energies depending on electron configurations. The material is useful for understanding coordination chemistry and transition metal complexes

These short notes cover the essential concepts from Chapter 3 (Chemical Kinetics) of the Class 12 CBSE Chemistry syllabus. Topics include rate laws, order and molecularity of reactions, factors influencing reaction rates, and techniques for calculating rate constants. This document serves as an effective tool for rapid revision before exams.

This is a Summary of chapter Chemical reactions and equations of subject science for class 10,Cbse which is based on Ncert.

Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to separate a nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons. It arises from the strong nuclear force, which holds nucleons together, overcoming electrostatic repulsion between protons. Binding energy per nucleon determines nuclear stability; iron-56 has one of the highest, making it highly stable. When lighter nuclei fuse (fusion) or heavier nuclei split (fission), energy is released due to mass-to-energy conversion, as described by Einstein’s e...

Atomic spectra refer to the unique patterns of light emitted or absorbed by atoms when electrons transition between energy levels. These spectra are categorized into emission and absorption spectra. In an emission spectrum, excited electrons release energy as photons, producing distinct spectral lines. In an absorption spectrum, atoms absorb specific wavelengths, creating dark lines in a continuous spectrum. Atomic spectra are crucial in identifying elements and understanding atomic structure. T...

Amines

The size of a nucleus is extremely small compared to the overall atom, typically ranging from 1 to 10 femtometers (fm) in diameter. It is determined using experiments like Rutherford’s scattering and electron diffraction. The nuclear radius follows the empirical formula R = R₀ A^(1/3), where R₀ ≈ 1.2 fm and A is the mass number. Since the nucleus contains most of an atom's mass, its high density is around 10¹⁷ kg/m³. Understanding nuclear size is essential in nuclear physics, helpin...

Mass-energy equivalence, expressed by Einstein’s famous equation E = mc², states that mass and energy are interchangeable. This principle means that a small amount of mass can be converted into a large amount of energy. It explains nuclear reactions, where mass defects in fission and fusion release immense energy. This concept underlies atomic bombs, nuclear power, and even energy production in stars. It also plays a crucial role in particle physics, such as in annihilation reactions where ma...

The Rutherford nuclear model, proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, describes the atom as having a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons. It was developed after the gold foil experiment, where alpha particles were fired at a thin gold foil. Most passed through, but some were deflected, indicating a small, massive nucleus. This overturned the plum pudding model and led to the modern atomic structure. However, it couldn't explain electron stability or spectral lines, later re...

Alpha particle trajectory refers to the path an alpha particle (a helium nucleus) follows when interacting with matter. In Rutherford's famous gold foil experiment, most alpha particles passed through the foil, but some were deflected at large angles, leading to the discovery of the atomic nucleus. Their trajectories depend on the electric fields of nearby atomic nuclei, experiencing deflection due to Coulomb repulsion. The closer an alpha particle gets to a nucleus, the stronger the deflection...