University of Santo Tomas

The text discusses the digestive system and body metabolism. It covers topics like the different parts of the digestive system, how digestion occurs, and the role of metabolism and nutrients. Some key points: • The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs. The GI tract has four layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. • Digestion begins in the mouth with chewing and the action of salivary enzymes. Food then moves to the stomach thr...

This text discusses the digestive system, its organs, functions, and metabolism. The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the alimentary canal and accessory organs. The alimentary canal includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Accessory organs like teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder assist in digestion. The organs perform functions like ingestion, digest...

The text discusses the lymphatic system and immune response. Regarding the lymphatic system, key points include: • The lymphatic system is a one-way system that lacks arteries and begins with blind-ended lymph capillaries, whereas the blood vascular system is two-way. • Lymphatic vessels resemble veins as they are thin walled and have valves. Lymph capillaries differ in that they are more permeable and blind ended. • The lymphatic vessels function to pick up and return excess ti...

The text discusses the lymphatic system and immune response. Some key points: • Any substance that can provoke an immune response is called an antigen. • The thymus gland is larger in younger people and found in the anterior thorax. • Cytokines are proteins secreted by macrophages that are important in the immune response. • Antibodies are not part of the first line of defense against pathogens. • When exposed to the wrong blood type for the first time, a person...

The text discusses various aspects of blood, including the different blood cell types and their functions. Some key points are: • Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are types of granulocytes. • An abnormally low white blood cell count is called leukopenia. • Hematocrit is a measurement of the percentage of erythrocytes in blood volume. • A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the bloodstream is called an embolus. • The average healthy male has 5 quart...

The text discusses the blood vessels of the pulmonary and systemic circulations, their structures, classifications, functions and related physiology. Key points: The pulmonary blood vessels carry oxygen-depleted blood to the lungs and return oxygenated blood to the heart. The systemic circulation includes arteries carrying oxygenated blood away from the heart and veins carrying deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Blood vessels are classified based on their sizes and location. Arteries...

The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions. The endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, thymus, pancreas and gonads. Hormones act on target cells by either directly activating genes or utilizing a second messenger system. Hormone release is regulated mostly by negative feedback mechanisms. The pituitary gland is considered the "master gland" as it controls the activities ...

This text discusses the anatomy and physiology of the special senses, focusing on the eye, ear, taste, and smell. Key topics covered include: The structures of the eye including the cornea, lens, retina, optic nerve, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles. The eye contains fluids like the aqueous humor and vitreous humor. The pathway of light through the eye and how vision is achieved is described. Conditions like myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism, and cataracts are ...

This text covers anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, cardiovascular system and special senses. Regarding the nervous system, it discusses the central nervous system which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system which includes the cranial and spinal nerves. It describes the parts and functions of neurons, synapses, neurotransmitters and the process of nerve impulse transmission. For the cardiovascular system, it discusses the parts and functions of the ...

The text discusses how nerve impulses travel along nerve pathways. There are four main steps involved: 1) Resting potential. At rest, the interior of the neuron cell is negatively charged due to sodium-potassium pumps that actively transport sodium ions out and potassium ions in. 2) Depolarization. When a threshold stimulus is received, sodium ion channels open and sodium ions diffuse into the cell, making the interior more positively charged and depolarizing the membrane. 3) Repolariz...