Turning: single point cutting tool removing marerial through rotation drill
v = DND N: Spindle speed [rpm) Drilling (w/ lathe or drill press Milling Drill bit stays still and workpiece is moved MACHININ
speed :
High preci
debreakageconina
D : drill bit diameter
feed fr
rate :
= Nfn
f : feed rate No tooling
-
I
force , motion , heat MRR = wdfr n : # teeth - & W
Good for l
Vol .
approach A 0 5 D ran (90 E
°
Pin = Pspindle
=
ts CNC Milling ,
Pfriction
-
FVc
.
=
T =
/As friction allowance :
Narive turning
= Yoon -
E bir :
t smallest drill
>
Pshear
-
=
FsVs As M = =
Pspindle For N
Good for hard surface Cleaner finish INJECTION
Needs more power Chips are not left at surface MOLDING
V I DaveN [m/min]
=in
=
curring speed :
M = vd + (m' min) t f :
feed/tooth N : spindleroration speed Very low
# cost , repe
fr : feed rate n :
teeth/flutes
Thru Hole Drilling Blind Hole Drilling
Roughness TND
plastic
hous
V
=
=
t + A d + A
Tm Tm
f Tm
=
=
arithmetic
=
mean val :
fr fr |a| + (b) + | c) + ...
fr MRR =
wdfr THERMOFOL
Ra =
B :
friction Tool & Wear Gradual wear: by friction or heat
n
Low tooling
Peripheral
RMS : :
Ja + b + c +
E Taylor’s Tool Life Fracture wear: sudden brittle failure
...
fr Lost, fast
(f)
Rq
=
r = n d D
tc vTn = cT
S
=
mechanisms that
A =
Jd(D-d) design cha
Highest lemp at rake face cause tool wear : Food packag
curring speed [m/min)
L A
(sindtc (cos(d x) V :
to =
= -
Temp a friction Vaf' Face (center) ADDITIVE
, :
C, n :
constant
rake face to have good hardness + temp resilience (offset)
sind Design Face
:
MANUFACT
rCosX T tool life (min]
rand
:
=
r =
for turning: A =
(w(D w) Complex int
cos(0 -x) carbide 4
-
1-rsinx n -0 .
W
uss n w 0 2 geometry , r
1
.
0 = 450 +
2 -
< merchant ea ) .
Ways to manage tool life:
Failure
• Operation
w
D
LA
prototyping
prototypes
F • direct: optical or electron microscopes • Stress
= F , SinX + FfCoS &
Fs : shear A 0 5(D ND wY
• indirect: built in sensors (acoustic • Temperature (highest temp & friction at rake face) =
-
SAND CASTI
. -
N = F , Cosa
-
Fusina F emission) • Wear (caused by abrasion, adhesion, etc.)
:
curring W: Workpiece thickness large par
Fs = F, cosd-Eysind Et thrust L A
Lubricants vs Coolants tooling $
:
Coil most to least : oils - emulsions + semi-synthetics -> synthetics low
Fn = F , sing + Eylos -Coolants: best for high cutting speed, lowers temp reducing heat e ects (semi synthetics or Machining: Cost + Time
En :
I shear engine bloc
Fr
synthetics)-Lubricants: best at low cutting speeds otherwise oil will burn, reduces friction, temp, Machining Cost ($/time) + tool cost (Taylor)
Fa shear strain
N: I rake
and energy consumption (oils and emulsions)-Pure water is not an option due to corrosion- + tool charge ($/time) + non productive
cost
DIE CASTIN
x) Trending towards dry/near-dry machining as coolants & lubricants are hard to process + reverse ($ for unload / unload excellent
B -
x V =
cord + ran(P -
cost
Ft
specific energy input
The grinding wheel Total time
machining
=
time + tool change
surface
+
conproductive time (load/unload)
Pc quality , t
B F
t MRR
-u = =
vs) Aluminum oxide: used to grind steel and other ferrous
high-strength alloys walls
MRR VW t = Silicon carbide: used for ductile materials (aluminum, small meral
&
brass, stainless steel) and brittle materials (cast irons, parts
specific power dissipation
ceramics); harder than aluminum oxide but not as tough;
FEcticin
EsVs
u) =
Us (shear
=
cannot grind steel
G-Code INVESTME
VW to VW to
Cubic boron nitride: used for hardened tool steels and aerospace alloys 1. Program Setup: LASTING
Uto =
Vete +
r
Ut
==
Non Traditional Machining
Diamond: used for hard & abrasive materials (ceramics, cemented carbides, glass)
Injection molding CAGR (2022 2030) 5 %
N5 G90 G21 (Abs units,
metric) + :
complex geo
N10 M06 T2 (Stop, tool
specific shear + specific friction + other toral specific Electrochemical Machining: uses electrolysis and electrolytes; metal atoms -plastic injection molding (2021) -> USD 271.6 billion and by 2030 ->
=
v/good
are dissolved from workpiece; only works on electrically conductive materials 419.1 billion -biggest application is packaging; 10 million tons/year change to #2)
dissipation dissipation energy N15 M03 S1200 (Turn
~ 75 % ~ 20 %
~ S % 100 % Electrical-Discharge Machining: uses spark discharges to induce localized
Process : Feed injection packaging spindle CW 1200 rpm)
accuracy
melting and vaporization; can machine very hard or brittle conductors granulate melling - + +
2. Material Removal:
Water Jet: uses high velocity water jet to remove any material; low accuracy
>
cooling part ejection -
- turbine
N20 G00 X1 Y1 (Rapid to
and required high pressure pump X1, Y1 from origin) blade
N25 Z0.125 (Rapid down
Two plate mold is best preferred METAL FORM
Machining CAGR = 6 5 % Two plate mold (simple with runner attached), three
. to Z0.125)
N30 G01 Z-0.125 F100
-market size: 2023 = 377.99 billion plate mold (two plates + stripper plate, runners are (Feed to Z-0.125) Improved
Simple, no High cutting efficiency Versatile & -why machining? highly exible, separated, complicated mechanical system, long 3. System Shutdown
stress transfer enables net shape production in a cycle), hot runner mold (3 platesm runner stays strength v
(Brazed tip) expensive N50 M05 (Turn spindle off)
variety of materials molten, lots of energy but faster) N55 M00 (Program Stop) grain flow
-highest vol machines part: iPhone Thermo plastic polymers are used and IM occurs
6 ~222.4 million just after glass melting temp
Shortshot: mold not lling entire cavity caused by
2 plate 3 plate
not runner time for im :
Forging
IM Faulties Process window SHEET MET
-warpage coupling
of plastic ,
: between
how it is constrained
shrinkage ↑
I/ , B/II A-shortshor(mold
entirely
not silled
-P
=n
=
n=
&: thermal
Tw :
diffusivity
wall temp toolN( FORMING
geometry +
Temp " B-thermal degradation
who
Te : ejection temp
= Capprox lightweigh
.NL
↳ to reduce :
play wl geometry high splastic degrades NP Ecool
trill
=
temp tas
,
Tm : Melt
pairs ,
adhesion force , 11 All
Fclamp =
=t
choose proper material C-Hash (pressure No high Q
x
> p :
density Cp
:
specific heat production
Air venting in tooling for propert efficient Fclamp
-
Pressure -Pwh3
molding plastic parts ↓ k : thermal conductivity high X is
good !
Shrinkage : Material is
heated
of -
too
high Q =
car body
↳ allow
trapped air to escape from mold
cavity 12n4 panels
Thermofolding: global market size (2023): $14.79 billion, CAGR 4.9%
MICROFABR
↳ demand in healthcare Rotational IM Other types of IM
high +
pharmaceutical packaging sector
nano-scale
Overmolding: molding over metal part
↳ for large parts
Process of heating and deforming a flat thermoplastic sheet to desired shape Micro IM: more expensive than regular IM feature
as material must be handled with care &
Thickness: area that touches the mold 1) fill w/ polymer
air d additional tolerances MEMS (mic
FIRST is THICKEST as plastic that hits
pallers/sand Metal IM: using metal powder and binder
↓ mold is no longer able to deform polymers and melting at temp of binder
chip
near s 11 2) close mold melting then undergoing chemical ICs (tiny
I
(v(d) + (x)t'd cleaning, thermal debinding, and sintering
Y begin rovation to separate and strengthen metal electronic
111111111 Positive 4) heat in over
(slow)
<slow rotation) Advances in TF
-robotics automation & software
cooling in Plastic
circuit
↓
Negative 5) remove from over while
rorating -materials: biodegradable plastics, hold : must have high -
COMPOSITE
↓ air thear d is best 6) remove solid part after even coaring advanced formable materials, MANUFACTU
Pressure Rate of heating paper-based packaging, carbon thermoconductivity low
Vacuum
,
to on Mold surface
improve ber reinforced polymers adhesion high Pro: highly
Mechanical Thermoforming
Limiting factors:
heat ,
specific ,
optimized
positive mold Other plastic processing methods withstand hear-cool cycles ,
-Heating (heat transfe r) structured, f
-Stretching of plastic (viscoelasticity) water bottles blow
easily machinable parts, lower
heated plastic
-
molding tooling
-Cooling (contact with cold mold) -
low mold sur face temp can
Con: high
neerm
Trash bags - blown film extrus create crystals in plastic +
variability,
condensation on mold
Trash bins - structural foam di cult qual
coolant used more in IM not control,
b-hear transfer moldings form IM is
-
,
pressure escape coefficient Rubber parts 7M; want turbulent flow expensive
- compression molding
for belle hear dissipation certi cation
(thermosers + rubbers
repair
Surface 1. Roughness: closely spaced, irregular deviations on a small scale Thermoplas
measured in terms of height, width and distance from each other re-meltablem
2. Waviness: recurrent deviation from a at surface measured in recyclable,
terms of waviness width (distance between adjacent crests) and in nite shelf
waviness height (distance between crests and valleys high proces
3. Lays: direction of predominant surface pattern temp
4. Flaws: random irregularities (scratches, cracks, holes, depressions)
fi fiffi fi fi fl fl ff
v = DND N: Spindle speed [rpm) Drilling (w/ lathe or drill press Milling Drill bit stays still and workpiece is moved MACHININ
speed :
High preci
debreakageconina
D : drill bit diameter
feed fr
rate :
= Nfn
f : feed rate No tooling
-
I
force , motion , heat MRR = wdfr n : # teeth - & W
Good for l
Vol .
approach A 0 5 D ran (90 E
°
Pin = Pspindle
=
ts CNC Milling ,
Pfriction
-
FVc
.
=
T =
/As friction allowance :
Narive turning
= Yoon -
E bir :
t smallest drill
>
Pshear
-
=
FsVs As M = =
Pspindle For N
Good for hard surface Cleaner finish INJECTION
Needs more power Chips are not left at surface MOLDING
V I DaveN [m/min]
=in
=
curring speed :
M = vd + (m' min) t f :
feed/tooth N : spindleroration speed Very low
# cost , repe
fr : feed rate n :
teeth/flutes
Thru Hole Drilling Blind Hole Drilling
Roughness TND
plastic
hous
V
=
=
t + A d + A
Tm Tm
f Tm
=
=
arithmetic
=
mean val :
fr fr |a| + (b) + | c) + ...
fr MRR =
wdfr THERMOFOL
Ra =
B :
friction Tool & Wear Gradual wear: by friction or heat
n
Low tooling
Peripheral
RMS : :
Ja + b + c +
E Taylor’s Tool Life Fracture wear: sudden brittle failure
...
fr Lost, fast
(f)
Rq
=
r = n d D
tc vTn = cT
S
=
mechanisms that
A =
Jd(D-d) design cha
Highest lemp at rake face cause tool wear : Food packag
curring speed [m/min)
L A
(sindtc (cos(d x) V :
to =
= -
Temp a friction Vaf' Face (center) ADDITIVE
, :
C, n :
constant
rake face to have good hardness + temp resilience (offset)
sind Design Face
:
MANUFACT
rCosX T tool life (min]
rand
:
=
r =
for turning: A =
(w(D w) Complex int
cos(0 -x) carbide 4
-
1-rsinx n -0 .
W
uss n w 0 2 geometry , r
1
.
0 = 450 +
2 -
< merchant ea ) .
Ways to manage tool life:
Failure
• Operation
w
D
LA
prototyping
prototypes
F • direct: optical or electron microscopes • Stress
= F , SinX + FfCoS &
Fs : shear A 0 5(D ND wY
• indirect: built in sensors (acoustic • Temperature (highest temp & friction at rake face) =
-
SAND CASTI
. -
N = F , Cosa
-
Fusina F emission) • Wear (caused by abrasion, adhesion, etc.)
:
curring W: Workpiece thickness large par
Fs = F, cosd-Eysind Et thrust L A
Lubricants vs Coolants tooling $
:
Coil most to least : oils - emulsions + semi-synthetics -> synthetics low
Fn = F , sing + Eylos -Coolants: best for high cutting speed, lowers temp reducing heat e ects (semi synthetics or Machining: Cost + Time
En :
I shear engine bloc
Fr
synthetics)-Lubricants: best at low cutting speeds otherwise oil will burn, reduces friction, temp, Machining Cost ($/time) + tool cost (Taylor)
Fa shear strain
N: I rake
and energy consumption (oils and emulsions)-Pure water is not an option due to corrosion- + tool charge ($/time) + non productive
cost
DIE CASTIN
x) Trending towards dry/near-dry machining as coolants & lubricants are hard to process + reverse ($ for unload / unload excellent
B -
x V =
cord + ran(P -
cost
Ft
specific energy input
The grinding wheel Total time
machining
=
time + tool change
surface
+
conproductive time (load/unload)
Pc quality , t
B F
t MRR
-u = =
vs) Aluminum oxide: used to grind steel and other ferrous
high-strength alloys walls
MRR VW t = Silicon carbide: used for ductile materials (aluminum, small meral
&
brass, stainless steel) and brittle materials (cast irons, parts
specific power dissipation
ceramics); harder than aluminum oxide but not as tough;
FEcticin
EsVs
u) =
Us (shear
=
cannot grind steel
G-Code INVESTME
VW to VW to
Cubic boron nitride: used for hardened tool steels and aerospace alloys 1. Program Setup: LASTING
Uto =
Vete +
r
Ut
==
Non Traditional Machining
Diamond: used for hard & abrasive materials (ceramics, cemented carbides, glass)
Injection molding CAGR (2022 2030) 5 %
N5 G90 G21 (Abs units,
metric) + :
complex geo
N10 M06 T2 (Stop, tool
specific shear + specific friction + other toral specific Electrochemical Machining: uses electrolysis and electrolytes; metal atoms -plastic injection molding (2021) -> USD 271.6 billion and by 2030 ->
=
v/good
are dissolved from workpiece; only works on electrically conductive materials 419.1 billion -biggest application is packaging; 10 million tons/year change to #2)
dissipation dissipation energy N15 M03 S1200 (Turn
~ 75 % ~ 20 %
~ S % 100 % Electrical-Discharge Machining: uses spark discharges to induce localized
Process : Feed injection packaging spindle CW 1200 rpm)
accuracy
melting and vaporization; can machine very hard or brittle conductors granulate melling - + +
2. Material Removal:
Water Jet: uses high velocity water jet to remove any material; low accuracy
>
cooling part ejection -
- turbine
N20 G00 X1 Y1 (Rapid to
and required high pressure pump X1, Y1 from origin) blade
N25 Z0.125 (Rapid down
Two plate mold is best preferred METAL FORM
Machining CAGR = 6 5 % Two plate mold (simple with runner attached), three
. to Z0.125)
N30 G01 Z-0.125 F100
-market size: 2023 = 377.99 billion plate mold (two plates + stripper plate, runners are (Feed to Z-0.125) Improved
Simple, no High cutting efficiency Versatile & -why machining? highly exible, separated, complicated mechanical system, long 3. System Shutdown
stress transfer enables net shape production in a cycle), hot runner mold (3 platesm runner stays strength v
(Brazed tip) expensive N50 M05 (Turn spindle off)
variety of materials molten, lots of energy but faster) N55 M00 (Program Stop) grain flow
-highest vol machines part: iPhone Thermo plastic polymers are used and IM occurs
6 ~222.4 million just after glass melting temp
Shortshot: mold not lling entire cavity caused by
2 plate 3 plate
not runner time for im :
Forging
IM Faulties Process window SHEET MET
-warpage coupling
of plastic ,
: between
how it is constrained
shrinkage ↑
I/ , B/II A-shortshor(mold
entirely
not silled
-P
=n
=
n=
&: thermal
Tw :
diffusivity
wall temp toolN( FORMING
geometry +
Temp " B-thermal degradation
who
Te : ejection temp
= Capprox lightweigh
.NL
↳ to reduce :
play wl geometry high splastic degrades NP Ecool
trill
=
temp tas
,
Tm : Melt
pairs ,
adhesion force , 11 All
Fclamp =
=t
choose proper material C-Hash (pressure No high Q
x
> p :
density Cp
:
specific heat production
Air venting in tooling for propert efficient Fclamp
-
Pressure -Pwh3
molding plastic parts ↓ k : thermal conductivity high X is
good !
Shrinkage : Material is
heated
of -
too
high Q =
car body
↳ allow
trapped air to escape from mold
cavity 12n4 panels
Thermofolding: global market size (2023): $14.79 billion, CAGR 4.9%
MICROFABR
↳ demand in healthcare Rotational IM Other types of IM
high +
pharmaceutical packaging sector
nano-scale
Overmolding: molding over metal part
↳ for large parts
Process of heating and deforming a flat thermoplastic sheet to desired shape Micro IM: more expensive than regular IM feature
as material must be handled with care &
Thickness: area that touches the mold 1) fill w/ polymer
air d additional tolerances MEMS (mic
FIRST is THICKEST as plastic that hits
pallers/sand Metal IM: using metal powder and binder
↓ mold is no longer able to deform polymers and melting at temp of binder
chip
near s 11 2) close mold melting then undergoing chemical ICs (tiny
I
(v(d) + (x)t'd cleaning, thermal debinding, and sintering
Y begin rovation to separate and strengthen metal electronic
111111111 Positive 4) heat in over
(slow)
<slow rotation) Advances in TF
-robotics automation & software
cooling in Plastic
circuit
↓
Negative 5) remove from over while
rorating -materials: biodegradable plastics, hold : must have high -
COMPOSITE
↓ air thear d is best 6) remove solid part after even coaring advanced formable materials, MANUFACTU
Pressure Rate of heating paper-based packaging, carbon thermoconductivity low
Vacuum
,
to on Mold surface
improve ber reinforced polymers adhesion high Pro: highly
Mechanical Thermoforming
Limiting factors:
heat ,
specific ,
optimized
positive mold Other plastic processing methods withstand hear-cool cycles ,
-Heating (heat transfe r) structured, f
-Stretching of plastic (viscoelasticity) water bottles blow
easily machinable parts, lower
heated plastic
-
molding tooling
-Cooling (contact with cold mold) -
low mold sur face temp can
Con: high
neerm
Trash bags - blown film extrus create crystals in plastic +
variability,
condensation on mold
Trash bins - structural foam di cult qual
coolant used more in IM not control,
b-hear transfer moldings form IM is
-
,
pressure escape coefficient Rubber parts 7M; want turbulent flow expensive
- compression molding
for belle hear dissipation certi cation
(thermosers + rubbers
repair
Surface 1. Roughness: closely spaced, irregular deviations on a small scale Thermoplas
measured in terms of height, width and distance from each other re-meltablem
2. Waviness: recurrent deviation from a at surface measured in recyclable,
terms of waviness width (distance between adjacent crests) and in nite shelf
waviness height (distance between crests and valleys high proces
3. Lays: direction of predominant surface pattern temp
4. Flaws: random irregularities (scratches, cracks, holes, depressions)
fi fiffi fi fi fl fl ff
