PSYC 310 Research Methods and Designs I COMPLETE
MIDTERM NOTES 2025 Concordia University
CHAPTER 1:
Science:
1. Evidence-based: Relies on experiments, data, and observations that
can be tested and repeated.
2. Falsifiable: Scientific claims can be proven wrong if new evidence
arises. This makes science self-correcting.
3. Peer-reviewed: Scientists share their findings with the community for
evaluation and critique.
4. Methodical: Follows a systematic process like the scientific method
(hypothesis, experiment, analysis, conclusion).
5. Predictive: Good scientific theories can predict future outcomes
accurately (e.g., physics predicts gravity’s effects).
Pseudoscience:
, 1. Lacks strong evidence: Claims are often based on anecdotal
evidence or unverified data.
2. Not falsifiable: Pseudoscientific ideas are often presented in ways
that can’t be tested or disproven.
3. Avoids peer review: Pseudoscientific claims are rarely scrutinized by
experts.
4. Unsystematic: Doesn’t follow a structured process or method like the
scientific method.
5. Fails to predict accurately: Pseudoscientific ideas often don't lead
to reliable or repeatable predictions.
METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE:
Scientific:
Scientific method
Non-Scientific: (They don't rely on scientific procedures like experiments or
data analysis.)
Method of tenacity
Method of intuition
Method of authority
Method of faith
Rational method
Method of empiricism
,Method of tenacity
This method rejects new information or evidence that contradicts the
existing belief. It’s driven by habit, tradition, or resistance to change.
For example, someone might believe in an old superstition simply
because it’s been passed down through generations.
Limitations:
The information acquired can be inaccurate.
You cannot correct erroneous ideas and beliefs.
Method of intuition
Knowledge is acquired based on feelings, instincts, and a "gut feeling"
or because “it feels right” rather than reasoning or evidence.
Limitations:
It cannot separate accurate from inaccurate information.
Method of authority
Trusting a statement because it was made by someone who is perceived as an authority
on the subject
Limitations:
Does not always provide accurate information.
Often accepts expert’s statements as fact (method of faith).
Not all “experts” are experts.
Method of faith
The method of faith is a variant of the method of authority.
In this method, individuals accept faith-based knowledge or beliefs, often associated with
religious or spiritual teachings. There’s no room for doubt or need for evidence, as the
belief is accepted wholeheartedly.
Limitations: there is no mechanism to assess the
accuracy of the answer.
Rational method (RATIONALISM)
method relies on logic and reasoning
, to arrive at conclusions.
Limitations:
1. Logical conclusions are only valid if the premise statements are true. But if your
premises are not true, even a logically valid argument will lead to a wrong
conclusion.
The rational method assumes
the premise statements are true
EX:
Premise 1:
All humans are mortal. (true)
Premise 2: Socrates is a human. (true)
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (valid and true)
2. People are not very good at Logical Reasoning
Humans often make errors in logical reasoning. They might think they are
being logical, but they make mistakes in how they connect premises to
conclusions. This leads to fallacies, which are errors in reasoning.
EX:
Suppose someone argues, "If I don’t study for the exam, I’ll fail. I
studied, so I won’t fail." This might seem logical at first glance,
but it’s flawed reasoning. Just because you studied doesn't
guarantee you won’t fail—the argument makes assumptions that
aren't logically sound.
Method of EMPIRICISM
Seeking answers through direct observation or personal experience. Empiricism relies on
sensory experiences (what we see, hear, touch, etc.) to form knowledge.
Limitations:
It is common for people to misperceive the world around them.
Perceptions can be altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, and beliefs.
You can make accurate observations but misinterpret them.
Can be time-consuming and sometimes dangerous.
EX:
The Horizontal-Vertical Illusion:
This is a well-known optical illusion in which
people tend to perceive a vertical line as longer
than a horizontal line of the same length. The
illusion demonstrates how human perception
can be easily distorted by visual context, even
though both lines are objectively equal in
length.
MIDTERM NOTES 2025 Concordia University
CHAPTER 1:
Science:
1. Evidence-based: Relies on experiments, data, and observations that
can be tested and repeated.
2. Falsifiable: Scientific claims can be proven wrong if new evidence
arises. This makes science self-correcting.
3. Peer-reviewed: Scientists share their findings with the community for
evaluation and critique.
4. Methodical: Follows a systematic process like the scientific method
(hypothesis, experiment, analysis, conclusion).
5. Predictive: Good scientific theories can predict future outcomes
accurately (e.g., physics predicts gravity’s effects).
Pseudoscience:
, 1. Lacks strong evidence: Claims are often based on anecdotal
evidence or unverified data.
2. Not falsifiable: Pseudoscientific ideas are often presented in ways
that can’t be tested or disproven.
3. Avoids peer review: Pseudoscientific claims are rarely scrutinized by
experts.
4. Unsystematic: Doesn’t follow a structured process or method like the
scientific method.
5. Fails to predict accurately: Pseudoscientific ideas often don't lead
to reliable or repeatable predictions.
METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE:
Scientific:
Scientific method
Non-Scientific: (They don't rely on scientific procedures like experiments or
data analysis.)
Method of tenacity
Method of intuition
Method of authority
Method of faith
Rational method
Method of empiricism
,Method of tenacity
This method rejects new information or evidence that contradicts the
existing belief. It’s driven by habit, tradition, or resistance to change.
For example, someone might believe in an old superstition simply
because it’s been passed down through generations.
Limitations:
The information acquired can be inaccurate.
You cannot correct erroneous ideas and beliefs.
Method of intuition
Knowledge is acquired based on feelings, instincts, and a "gut feeling"
or because “it feels right” rather than reasoning or evidence.
Limitations:
It cannot separate accurate from inaccurate information.
Method of authority
Trusting a statement because it was made by someone who is perceived as an authority
on the subject
Limitations:
Does not always provide accurate information.
Often accepts expert’s statements as fact (method of faith).
Not all “experts” are experts.
Method of faith
The method of faith is a variant of the method of authority.
In this method, individuals accept faith-based knowledge or beliefs, often associated with
religious or spiritual teachings. There’s no room for doubt or need for evidence, as the
belief is accepted wholeheartedly.
Limitations: there is no mechanism to assess the
accuracy of the answer.
Rational method (RATIONALISM)
method relies on logic and reasoning
, to arrive at conclusions.
Limitations:
1. Logical conclusions are only valid if the premise statements are true. But if your
premises are not true, even a logically valid argument will lead to a wrong
conclusion.
The rational method assumes
the premise statements are true
EX:
Premise 1:
All humans are mortal. (true)
Premise 2: Socrates is a human. (true)
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (valid and true)
2. People are not very good at Logical Reasoning
Humans often make errors in logical reasoning. They might think they are
being logical, but they make mistakes in how they connect premises to
conclusions. This leads to fallacies, which are errors in reasoning.
EX:
Suppose someone argues, "If I don’t study for the exam, I’ll fail. I
studied, so I won’t fail." This might seem logical at first glance,
but it’s flawed reasoning. Just because you studied doesn't
guarantee you won’t fail—the argument makes assumptions that
aren't logically sound.
Method of EMPIRICISM
Seeking answers through direct observation or personal experience. Empiricism relies on
sensory experiences (what we see, hear, touch, etc.) to form knowledge.
Limitations:
It is common for people to misperceive the world around them.
Perceptions can be altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, and beliefs.
You can make accurate observations but misinterpret them.
Can be time-consuming and sometimes dangerous.
EX:
The Horizontal-Vertical Illusion:
This is a well-known optical illusion in which
people tend to perceive a vertical line as longer
than a horizontal line of the same length. The
illusion demonstrates how human perception
can be easily distorted by visual context, even
though both lines are objectively equal in
length.
