Chapter 7 continued
classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and
anticipate events.
behaviorism the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior
without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with
(2).
neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before
conditioning. unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring
response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and
automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but
now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after
association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In
operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning
experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned
stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a
light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order
conditioning.)
extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant
conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
generalization the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
“I don’t care if she’s a tape dispenser. I love her.”
discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned
stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
,operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer
or diminished if followed by a punisher.
law of effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more
likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
operant chamber in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box)
containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached
devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and
closer approximations of the desired behavior.
• With classical conditioning, we learn associations between events we do not control. With operant
conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and resulting events.
Positive reinforcement
Add a desirable stimulus
Pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay the person who paints your house.
Negative reinforcement
Remove an aversive stimulus
Take painkillers to end pain; fasten seatbelt to end loud beeping.
positive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer
is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative
reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note:
Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
primary reinforcer an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
conditioned reinforcer a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a
primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
continuous reinforcement schedule reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in
slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous
,reinforcement.
fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
only after a specified number of responses.
variable-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
after an unpredictable number of responses.
fixed-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
only after a specified time has elapsed.
variable-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a
response at unpredictable time intervals.
punishment an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
Positive punishment
Administer something that’s undesired.
Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding.
Negative punishment
End something that’s desired.
Take away a misbehaving teen’s driving privileges; revoke a library card for nonpayment of fines
Type of Stimulus Give It Take It Away
Desired (for example, a teen’s use of the car) 1. Pos reinforcement 2. Neg punishment
Undesired/aversive (for example, an insult) 3.Pos punishment 4. Neg reinforcement
Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) respondent behavior; pressing a bar to obtain
food is a(n) operant behavior
cognitive map a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after
exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
, intrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened
punishment.
observational learning learning by observing others.
modeling the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
mirror neurons frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions
or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation
and empathy.
prosocial behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
1. Knowing the way from your bed to the bathroom in the dark
c. Latent learning
2. Your little brother getting in a fight after watching a violent action movie
d. Observational learning
3. Salivating when you smell brownies in the oven
Classical conditioning
4. Disliking the taste of chili after becoming violently sick a few hours after eating chili
e. Biological predispositions.
5. Your dog racing to greet you on your arrival home
b. Operant conditioning
memory the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of
information
recall a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-
in-the-blank test.
recognition a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned,
as on a multiple choice test.
relearning a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material
again..
encoding the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting
classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and
anticipate events.
behaviorism the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior
without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with
(2).
neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before
conditioning. unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring
response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and
automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but
now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after
association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In
operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning
experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned
stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a
light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order
conditioning.)
extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant
conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
generalization the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
“I don’t care if she’s a tape dispenser. I love her.”
discrimination in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned
stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
,operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer
or diminished if followed by a punisher.
law of effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more
likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
operant chamber in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box)
containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached
devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and
closer approximations of the desired behavior.
• With classical conditioning, we learn associations between events we do not control. With operant
conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and resulting events.
Positive reinforcement
Add a desirable stimulus
Pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay the person who paints your house.
Negative reinforcement
Remove an aversive stimulus
Take painkillers to end pain; fasten seatbelt to end loud beeping.
positive reinforcement increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer
is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative
reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note:
Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
primary reinforcer an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
conditioned reinforcer a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a
primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
continuous reinforcement schedule reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in
slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous
,reinforcement.
fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
only after a specified number of responses.
variable-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
after an unpredictable number of responses.
fixed-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
only after a specified time has elapsed.
variable-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a
response at unpredictable time intervals.
punishment an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
Positive punishment
Administer something that’s undesired.
Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding.
Negative punishment
End something that’s desired.
Take away a misbehaving teen’s driving privileges; revoke a library card for nonpayment of fines
Type of Stimulus Give It Take It Away
Desired (for example, a teen’s use of the car) 1. Pos reinforcement 2. Neg punishment
Undesired/aversive (for example, an insult) 3.Pos punishment 4. Neg reinforcement
Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) respondent behavior; pressing a bar to obtain
food is a(n) operant behavior
cognitive map a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after
exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
, intrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened
punishment.
observational learning learning by observing others.
modeling the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
mirror neurons frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions
or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation
and empathy.
prosocial behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
1. Knowing the way from your bed to the bathroom in the dark
c. Latent learning
2. Your little brother getting in a fight after watching a violent action movie
d. Observational learning
3. Salivating when you smell brownies in the oven
Classical conditioning
4. Disliking the taste of chili after becoming violently sick a few hours after eating chili
e. Biological predispositions.
5. Your dog racing to greet you on your arrival home
b. Operant conditioning
memory the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of
information
recall a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-
in-the-blank test.
recognition a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned,
as on a multiple choice test.
relearning a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material
again..
encoding the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting
