WGU D236 Final Exam Pathophysiology Prep (Latest 2026/ 2027 Update) | 100% Verified Questions & Answers | Grade A

WGU D236 Final Exam Pathophysiology Prep (Latest 2026/ 2027 Update) | 100% Verified Questions & Answers | Grade A While performing the genital assessment of a male client, a nurse observes that the client has curvature of the penis. Which condition does the nurse suspect in the client? Peyronie's disease A client tells a nurse, "My erections lasts for several hours and are painful. "Which medication found in the client's prescription is responsible? Sildenafil A nurse observes that a newborn has an abnormally positioned urethral orifice of the penis. Which disorder will the nurse suspect in the newborn? Hypospadias Which physical finding in a client will lead a nurse to suspect paraphimosis? Permanent retracted position of the foreskin behind the penis A registered nurse is teaching about the medications for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) to a group of student nurses. Which statement of a student nurse indicates the need for further teaching? "Alpha-blockers REDUCE the size of the prostate." Which hormone stimulates Sertoli cells to synthesize spermatozoa? Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) While assessing a male client for reproductive disorders, the primary health-care provider wants to understand whether the client has prostate cancer or benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Which diagnostic test will the nurse expect in this case? Both A and B (Ultrasound Urine flow studies) While assessing a male client, a nurse finds erythema, swelling, and tenderness of the scrotum. The client also reports pain in the scrotum. Which disorder does the nurse suspect in the client? Testicular torsion A digital rectal examination (DRE) in a client reveals the enlargement of the prostate gland that is firm, painless, and generalized. Which medications will the nurse anticipate from the primary health-care provider to treat the client? Alpha-blockers & 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors Alpha-blockers help to relax the smooth muscles of the prostate but do not aid in reducing the size of the prostate. While assessing a male client, a nurse observes swelling in the scrotum due to the collection of serous fluid. Which condition does the nurse suspect in the client? HYDROcele Which disorder can occur due to HIV? Testicular cancer Which artery provides engorgement of the glans during erection? Dorsal After examining an elderly client's penis, a nurse finds the presence of scar tissue in the corpora cavernosum. On further assessment, the nurse confirms Peyronie's disease in the client. Which finding supports the nurse's confirmation? Presence of a curved penis A nurse teaches intervention to a client for healthy spermatogenesis. During a follow-up visit, the nurse finds that the client has risk for diminished sperm production. Which statement of the client supports the nurse's conclusion? "I should take a hot bath regularly." During an assessment, a nurse observes the signs of diminished secondary sexual characteristics in an adult male client. What should be the appropriate nursing action? Measure the morning serum testosterone levels. Which hormone stimulates the Leydig cells of the testes to secrete testosterone? Luteinizing hormone Which cells secrete inhibin hormone? Sertoli cells Which condition can cause ischemia of the testicle? Testicular torsion While assessing a male client, a nurse observes that the client has a small penis, long legs, short trunk, enlarged breast tissues, small testicles, and sexual dysfunction. What reason does the nurse suspect from these findings? Presence of an extra X chromosome Which gland secretes a lubricating fluid that coats the urethra during sexual arousal? Bulbourethral gland Endocrine System Consists of glands secreting hormones into the bloodstream Hormone Regulation Hormones act on target cells by binding to specific receptors Homeostasis Maintenance Hormones regulate physiological parameters for internal balance Growth and Development Hormones influence growth, muscle development, and maturation Stress Response Endocrine system releases cortisol to adapt to stressors Autoimmune Diseases Immune system attacks endocrine glands, causing disorders Neoplastic Growth Tumors in glands disrupt hormone production and functions Pituitary Gland Disorders Conditions affecting pituitary hormone secretion levels Hypopituitarism Underactivity of pituitary gland causing hormone deficiencies Hyperpituitarism Overactivity of pituitary gland leading to hormone excess SIADH Excessive antidiuretic hormone secretion causing water retention Thyroid Disorders Conditions affecting thyroid hormone production and function Graves' Disease Autoimmune hyperthyroidism with goiter and eye involvement Hypothyroidism Underactive thyroid gland causing hormone deficiency symptoms Thyrotoxicosis Excessive thyroid hormone activity in the body Adrenal Gland Disorders Conditions affecting adrenal hormone production and function Cushing's Disease Hypercortisolism due to excessive ACTH production Addison's Disease Adrenal insufficiency from autoimmune adrenal destruction Pheochromocytoma Adrenal tumor producing excess catecholamines Type 1 Diabetes Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells Type 2 Diabetes Insulin resistance leading to decreased insulin production Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) Severe hyperglycemia, ketosis, and metabolic acidosis Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Syndrome (HHS) Life-threatening hyperglycemia, hyperosmolarity, and dehydration Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (HHS) Occurs in older adults with type 2 diabetes, leading to extreme dehydration and altered consciousness. Chlamydia Common STI caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, often asymptomatic but can cause PID and infertility. Gonorrhea STI caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, with symptoms like urethral discharge and pelvic pain. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) Infection of female reproductive organs, commonly caused by STIs, leading to pelvic pain and infertility. LGBTQ Sexual Health Care Unique care needs for LGBTQ individuals related to sexual orientation and gender identity. Endometriosis Condition where endometrial tissue grows outside the uterus, causing pelvic pain and infertility. Adenomyosis Endometrial tissue grows into the uterine wall, causing heavy bleeding and pelvic pain. Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) Hormonal disorder with ovarian cysts, irregular cycles, and symptoms of androgen excess. Hormone Receptors ER, PR, and HER2 play a key role in breast cancer biology. Triple-Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) Rapid growing Breast cancer subtype lacking ER, PR, and HER2 expression, treated with chemotherapy. Ovarian Cancer Malignancy in ovaries with symptoms like bloating, pelvic pain, and bowel habit changes. Cervical Cancer Malignancy in cervix cells, often caused by high-risk HPV infection. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) Non-cancerous prostate enlargement causing urinary symptoms in older men. Erectile Dysfunction (ED) Inability to achieve or maintain an erection for sexual intercourse. Prostate Cancer Malignancy in the prostate gland, varying in aggressiveness. Hormone Therapy for Prostate Cancer Aims to reduce androgens stimulating prostate cancer growth, involving testosterone and DHT suppression. Surgical Castration Removal of testes to decrease testosterone production, a permanent form of hormone therapy. Medical Castration Administration of medications suppressing testosterone production by the testes. Anti-Androgens Medications blocking androgen action at the cellular level in prostate cancer treatment. Indications for Hormone Therapy Used in locally advanced or metastatic prostate cancer, alone or with other treatments. Side Effects of Hormone Therapy Include hot flashes, loss of libido, erectile dysfunction, fatigue, weight gain, and metabolic changes. Long-term Hormone Therapy Risks May increase risk of cognitive impairment, mood changes, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Esophagus Muscular tube connecting throat to stomach for food transport Peristalsis Coordinated muscular contractions aiding food movement in esophagus Lower Esophageal Sphincter Regulates food passage, prevents stomach reflux into esophagus Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) Weak LES causes stomach acid reflux, leading to heartburn Esophageal Stricture Narrowing of esophagus from chronic inflammation or scarring Stomach Upper abdomen organ for food digestion, storage, and mixing Chyme Semi-liquid food mixture formed in the stomach Gastritis Stomach lining inflammation from infections, medications, or alcohol Small Intestine Longest digestive tract part for nutrient digestion and absorption Villi and Microvilli Structures aiding nutrient absorption in the small intestine Malabsorption Syndromes Conditions impairing nutrient absorption like celiac disease Small Bowel Obstruction Blockage in the small intestine causing abdominal symptoms Inflammation Digestive tract swelling from immune responses, infections, or autoimmune reactions Ischemia Reduced blood flow to the gut leading to tissue damage Chemical Injury Gastrointestinal mucosa damage from irritants or toxic substances Immune Disorders Autoimmune diseases attacking the gut, causing inflammation Abdominal Pain Common manifestation of gastrointestinal disorders Perforation Intestinal wall hole from severe inflammation or injury Fistulas Abnormal connections between digestive tract parts or organs Malabsorption Impaired nutrient absorption leading to deficiencies Colorectal Cancer Cancer risk from chronic inflammation and genetic factors Complications of Treatment Adverse effects from gastrointestinal disorder treatments Upper Esophageal Sphincter Relaxes during swallowing to allow food passage Epithelial Cells Protective barrier cells in the esophageal lining Barrett's Esophagus Precancerous condition due to chronic acid reflux Esophageal Blood Vessels Blood vessels supplying the esophagus, forming a vasa vasorum network. Esophageal Veins Veins draining blood from the esophagus into the portal vein system. Upper GI Tract Bleeding Bleeding in the upper digestive tract, including esophagus, stomach, duodenum. Esophageal Varices Enlarged veins in the lower esophagus, often due to liver cirrhosis. Peptic Ulcer Disease Open sores in stomach or duodenum lining, leading to ulcers. Hernia Organ or tissue protrusion through weak abdominal wall spot. Gastroenteritis Inflammation of stomach and intestines caused by infections. Celiac Disease Autoimmune disorder reacting to gluten, damaging small intestine lining. Large Intestine Functions Absorption of water, fermentation of carbs, storage of feces. Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Includes Crohn's disease, Ulcerative Colitis, with characteristic symptoms. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) Abdominal pain, bloating, bowel habit changes without structural issues. Appendicitis Inflammation of the appendix presenting with abdominal pain. Large Bowel Obstruction Blockage causing abdominal distention, pain, constipation, vomiting. Peritonitis Severe infection of the abdominal cavity, often caused by a ruptured appendix. Ulcerative Colitis Inflammation and ulceration of the colon's inner lining, leading to bloody diarrhea. Crohn's Disease Patchy inflammation affecting the gastrointestinal tract, may show 'cobblestone' appearance on colonoscopy. Liver Cirrhosis Chronic liver disease with scarring, leading to complications like ascites and hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatitis C Viral liver infection potentially progressing to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Jaundice Yellowing of skin due to liver dysfunction affecting bilirubin metabolism. Gallbladder Dysfunction Issues like gallstones causing abdominal pain, nausea, and jaundice. Pancreatitis Inflammation of the pancreas, leading to symptoms like abdominal pain and elevated enzymes. Polycystic Kidney Disease Genetic disorder forming cysts in kidneys, impacting renal function. Urinary Tract Infections Bacterial invasion causing inflammation, symptoms include dysuria and cloudy urine. Pyelonephritis Kidney infection often ascending from the bladder, presenting with fever and flank pain. Glomerulonephritis Inflammation of kidney filtering units, leading to symptoms like hematuria and edema. Renal Calculi Solid structures in the kidneys causing pain, hematuria, and urinary urgency. Bladder Cancer Malignancy arising from the bladder lining, commonly showing hematuria. Acute Kidney Injury Sudden loss of kidney function, impacting waste filtration and fluid balance. Prerenal Causes of AKI Factors like hypovolemia reducing kidney blood flow, leading to acute injury. Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN) Direct kidney tissue damage from ischemia or nephrotoxicity. Ischemic Injury Reduced blood flow causing cellular hypoxia and renal tubule cell death. Inflammatory Response Cascade involving cytokines, leukocytes, and immune cells in kidney injury. Oliguria Decreased urine output, a sign of kidney dysfunction. Chronic Renal Failure (CRF) Progressive decline in kidney function over months to years. Glomerulosclerosis Scarring of glomeruli leading to proteinuria and decreased GFR. End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) Kidneys lose function requiring dialysis or transplantation. Nephrotic Syndrome Indicates kidney damage with proteinuria, edema, and hyperlipidemia. Hemodialysis Blood filtration outside the body to remove waste products. Cystitis Bladder inflammation often due to bacterial infection. Hydronephrosis Kidney swelling from urinary tract obstruction. Hydroureter Ureter swelling from urine accumulation due to obstruction. Interstitial Cystitis Chronic bladder pain condition with urinary symptoms such as increased urgency. Obstructive Uropathy Conditions obstructing urine flow, causing renal dysfunction. Proteinuria Excessive protein in urine, signifying kidney dysfunction. Urolithiasis Formation of stones in the urinary tract. Renal Cell Cancer (RCC) Most common kidney cancer type originating from renal tubular cells. Gas Exchange Process of oxygen entering the bloodstream and carbon dioxide exiting. Alveoli Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs in the lungs. Bronchi Main airways branching from the trachea into the lungs. Bronchioles Small airways connecting bronchi to alveoli in the lungs. Pulmonary Ventilation Breathing process involving air intake and exhalation. Diffusion Movement of gases between alveoli and bloodstream. Diaphragm Muscle aiding in inhalation by expanding the thoracic cavity. Intercostal Muscles Muscles aiding in inhalation by expanding the ribcage. Dyspnea Shortness of breath, a sign of lung pathophysiology. Hemoptysis Coughing up blood, a sign of lung pathophysiology. Cyanosis Bluish discoloration of lips or fingertips due to low oxygen. Spirometry Test measuring lung function, including forced expiratory volume. Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (URTIs) Affect nasal passages, sinuses, throat, and larynx. Allergic Rhinitis Allergic reaction causing symptoms like sneezing and congestion. Sinusitis Inflammation of air-filled cavities in facial bones. Pharyngitis Throat inflammation causing sore throat and difficulty swallowing. Laryngitis Inflammation of the voice box causing hoarseness. Epiglottitis Inflammation of the epiglottis, leading to airway obstruction. Infectious Mononucleosis Viral infection causing sore throat and swollen lymph nodes. Lower Respiratory Tract Infections (LRTIs) Affect trachea, bronchi, and lungs below the larynx. Bronchitis Inflammation of bronchial tubes causing cough and sputum production. Pneumonia Infection inflaming air sacs in the lungs, leading to fluid buildup. Legionnaires' Disease Severe pneumonia caused by Legionella pneumophila bacteria. Tuberculosis (TB) Bacterial infection affecting the lungs and other body parts. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Progressive lung disease with persistent airflow limitation. Chronic Asthma Respiratory condition causing airway inflammation and narrowing. Bronchiectasis Chronic airway dilation due to infections or inflammation. Lymphatic System Includes vessels, nodes, and fluid for filtering pathogens Leukocytosis Increase in white blood cells from bone marrow Phagocytosis Specialized cells ingesting bacterial pathogens Inflammation Immune response to injury involving vascular permeability Autoimmune Diseases Immune system attacks body's own tissues Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) Autoimmune disease targeting specific tissues Immunodeficiency Deficient immune system leading to infection risk Leukemias Cancers originating in the bone marrow Lymphomas Cancers in lymphocytes of lymphatic vessels/nodes Symptoms of lymphoma Include swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, fever, weight loss Bacterial Infections Caused by bacteria like Staphylococcus or Streptococcus Viral Infections Caused by viruses like rhinoviruses or influenza Parasitic Infections Caused by parasites like Plasmodium or Toxoplasma Tick-Borne Bacterial Disorders Infections transmitted through tick bites Colonized Presence of bacterial pathogen without infection symptoms Common Cold Caused by viruses leading to runny nose and sore throat Influenza Virus Causes flu symptoms like fever and muscle aches Epstein-Barr Virus Associated with infectious mononucleosis Malaria Caused by Plasmodium parasites from mosquito bites Toxoplasmosis Caused by Toxoplasma gondii, can be severe in weakened immune systems HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus CD4 Cells Most common T lymphocytes involved in immunity Aneurysm Localized dilation of a blood vessel wall, potentially leading to severe complications like hemorrhagic stroke. Thrombus Stationary blood clot within a blood vessel. Embolus Clot or material traveling through the bloodstream to obstruct a distant blood vessel. Atherosclerosis Buildup of plaque inside arteries, leading to blockages in blood flow. Endothelial injury First step in atherosclerosis development. Foam cell formation Second step in atherosclerosis development. Fatty streak formation Occurs after foam cell formation in atherosclerosis development. (Think of fatty streak formation like a small stain on a white shirt that appears after you spill some oily salad dressing - it's an early sign of trouble in the arteries.) Angina pectoris Chest pain due to inadequate oxygen-rich blood supply to the heart. Stable angina Chest pain triggered by activity, relieved with rest or nitroglycerin. Unstable angina Chest pain not relieved by rest or nitroglycerin. Prinzmetal angina Chest pain without an identifiable trigger. Myocardial infarction Heart attack due to prolonged blockage of blood flow to the heart. Myocardial ischemia Inadequate blood flow to the heart during pain. Heart dysrhythmia Abnormal heart rhythms, potentially life-threatening. Congestive heart failure Inability of the heart to pump enough blood, leading to symptoms like shortness of breath and fatigue. Valvular heart diseases Conditions affecting heart valves, causing issues with blood flow. Endocarditis Infection of the inner lining of heart chambers and valves. Pericarditis Inflammation of the sac-like membrane surrounding the heart. Myocarditis Inflammation of the heart muscle affecting its pumping ability. Heart Failure Impaired heart pumping leading to symptoms like fatigue and fluid retention. Blood Vessels Arteries, veins, and capillaries transporting blood throughout the body. Blood Carries oxygen, nutrients, and waste products, affected in heart failure. Fluid Retention Accumulation of fluid in tissues due to venous congestion Lymphatic System Maintains fluid balance and aids immune function Autonomic Nervous System Regulates heart rate, blood pressure, and vascular tone Respiratory System Works with cardiovascular system for gas exchange Benign Hypertension Well-controlled high blood pressure without organ damage Malignant Hypertension Severe high blood pressure causing organ damage Stage 1 Hypertension Systolic 130-139 mm Hg or diastolic 80-89 mm Hg Stage 2 Hypertension Systolic ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic ≥90 mm Hg Hypertensive Crisis Severe elevation in blood pressure requiring immediate treatment Heart Valves Regulate blood flow through heart chambers Aortic Valve Allows blood flow from left ventricle to aorta Mitral Valve Controls blood flow from left atrium to left ventricle Tricuspid Valve Regulates blood flow from right atrium to right ventricle Pulmonary Valve Allows blood flow from right ventricle to pulmonary artery Stenosis Narrowing of a heart valve leading to decreased blood flow Regurgitation Valve leakage causing backward blood flow Anemia Condition of low red blood cell count Folic Acid Anemia Deficiency in folic acid affecting red blood cell production Pernicious Anemia Vitamin B12 deficiency impacting red blood cell production Iron-Deficiency Anemia Lack of iron hindering hemoglobin production Aplastic Anemia Bone marrow failure to produce enough blood cells Infectious Diseases Diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms Communicable Diseases Diseases capable of spreading from person to person Anabolism The phase of metabolism where simple substances are made into complex ones. Catabolism Breakdown of substances into energy what tissues most often develop tumors Epithelial and connective tissues Papilloma What type of benign tumor is a wart? (Papilloma, Lipoma, Myoma, Chondroma) Lipoma What benign tumor begins in the fatty tissue? (Papilloma, Lipoma, Myoma, Chondroma) Myoma What benign tumor is also called a fibroid? (Papilloma, Lipoma, Myoma, Chondroma) Chondroma What benign tumor is of cartilage cells? (Papilloma, Lipoma, Myoma, Chondroma) Sarcoma What type of tumor can be found anywhere and arises from connective tissue? Fevers and night sweats What are early signs of lymphoma? Planting radioactive seeds into a malignant prostate and irradiating to reduce damage to healthy tissue is called: radiation therapy vesicle Skin lesion described as a small fluid filled elevation of the skin (eg blister) [vesicle, pustule, macule, papule] pustule Skin lesion described as an elevation of the skin containing white blood cells and cell debris [vesicle, pustule, macule, papule] macule Skin lesion described as a spot not raised or depressed (eg freckle) [vesicle, pustule, macule, papule] papule Skin lesion described as a firm raised area of skin (eg pimple] [vesicle, pustule, macule, papule] excoriation Skin lesions described as a scratch into the skin. laceration Skin trauma- rough, jagged wound caused by skin tearing: fissure Skin trauma- crack in the skin ulcer skin trauma - sore with disintegration and death of affected tissue superficial burn Burn involving only the epidermal layer of the skin. Blisters and pain at the burn site. How do superficial partial thickness burns present? shingles Painful vesicular lesions caused by varicella. normal treatment is antiviral medications and corticosteroids to decrease pain. superficial Tissue destruction involving only the epidermal layer of the skin is called: What are two signs of allergic skin reactions? Pruritus and urticarial They are all autoimmune diseases involving the skin What do Pemphigus, scleroderma and lupus erythematosus have in common? What can damage to the semicircular canals in the ears do? Disturb equilibrium Placing a myringotomy tube in the ear How can otitis media be prevented? Presbycusis What is age related hearing loss called? What can alleviate age-related hearing loss (Presbycusis)? Speaking in clear low pitched tones arthrocentesis, laparoscopic repairs, and fixation of screws What can treatment of joint disorders include? Gout Form of arthritis described as a higher level of uric acid crystals accumulating in joint Septic arthritis Form of arthritis that may result from an invasive procedure, organisms carried to the joint by the blood stream. Osteoarthritis Form of arthritis that may be the results of aging and repeated trauma most often in weight bearing joints. Rheumatoid arthritis Form of arthritis described as an inflammation and overgrowth of synovial fluid causing severe pain; joints stiffen and become useless Myasthenia gravis Chronic muscular fatigue caused by defect at the neuromuscular junction By taking antacid medications, and using medications that decrease production of hydrochloric acid. How can gastroesophageal reflux disease be treated? Chronic pancreatitis Characterized with severe pain and blood tests that show elevated serum amylase Pancreatitis What impacts the digestive process by leading to enzyme imbalances? Testing blood serology How is viral hepatitis identified? Bowel fucntion What does chronic hepatitis often exhibit changes in? What could arise if an Rh negative patient experiences a second exposure to Rh positive blood? an antigen-antibody reaction Hemophilia A bleeding disorder caused by deficiency of a clotting factor. Leukemia A neoplastic disease characterized by a large increase in white blood cells. Thalassemia A group of hereditary disorders causing impaired hemoglobin synthesis. Aplastic anemia A bone marrow failure characterized by a decreased red blood cell production. Vitamin K What vitamin is required for effective blood clotting? Diet, prescribed diuretics, regular exercise What are three recommendations for the treatment of hypertension? Shock can display these symptoms: confusion, anxiety, and hypotension? Atrophy What is described as a decrease in the size of a muscle from disuse? Strains What is described as pain and stiffness caused by overuse? Sprains What is described as pain and swelling caused by the tearing of ligaments? Muscular distrophy What is described as the deterioration of muscles that have intact nerve function? Cramps Strong, painful muscle contractions Shoulder joint dislocation What is described as acutely painful in the arm and chest area and often results in the affected arm being longer than the mate? Helicobacter pylori What causes a gastrointestinal disorder known as a peptic ulcer? Inflammation of the gallbladder What is characterized by abdominal pain and elevated bilirubin? Amylase What digests starch? Lipase What digests lipids? Trypsin What digests proteins? Nucleases What digests nucleic acids? serology and serum chemistry How can hepatitis be diagnosed? Blood transfusions What might both leukemia and pernicious anemia require? Jaundice and loss of appetite What are two signs of hepatitis? Anemia What directly impairs the delivery of oxygen to body tissues? Thrombosis (blood clots) What are characterized by pain and swelling, warmth and redness around site or location and are typically diagnosed by an US or MRI? Calcium-channel blockers What helps to control hypertension by inhibiting calcium ions from entering cardiac muscle cells? Age, gender, heredity, living conditions, social habits and preexisting conditions What are epidemics defined by? Tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy What are two treatments for frequent otitis media an chronic sore throat? Elephantiasis, splenomegaly, and infectious mononucleosis What are three pathological responses of the lymphatic system? Chemotherapy and bone marrow transplant What treatment plan has produced the best survival rates for multiple myeloma? An autoimmune hypersensitivity What can self-antigens trigger? ECG readings, troponin levels, and creatine kinase levels What are three ways used to diagnose myocardial infarctions? Shortness of breath What is caused by increased blood flow backing up into the pulmonary circulation? CRP What lab test can diagnose Atherosclerosis? Congestive heart failure What are increased fatigue, shortness of breath, and edema of extremities signs of? What is a probable cause of lower extremity edema and elevated blood pressure? Renin Hypotension What can be exemplified by frequent fainting, low blood pressure, and low body temperature? Kussmaul What is a deep rapid respiration characteristic of acidosis as seen in diabetic patients? Hyperpnea What is an abnormal increase in the depth and rate of breathing? Dyspnea What is a subjective feeling of difficult or labored breathing? A loud, barking cough with audible wheezing at night. How is croup characterized? External oxygen What can often improve and prolong the quality of life for those with CPOD? An electroencephalogram (EEG) What is used to record a human's brain waves to diagnose neurologic diseases? Meningitis What can be characterized by a headache, stiff neck, nausea, and vomiting? What is renal colic and how is it treated? Kidney Pain r/t obstruction. Analgesics Peripheral neuropathy A manifestation of uncontrolled diabetes and alcoholism and shows itself in pain and numbness in the extremities Sodium retention What can be a cause of edema and hypertension for a patient with chronic renal failure? Parkinson's disease What is a nervous system disease treated by dopamine replacement therapy? Lithotripsy What is a surgical procedure aimed at shattering renal calculi? White blood cells What in the urine is indicative of pyuria (uti)? Hemodialysis What is the recommended treatment if a patient is suffering from chronic renal failure, vomiting, and fatigue? Toxins such as urea and nitrogenous waste from the blood. What does hemodialysis remove? It can strain the kidneys and lead to organ disfunction What effect can low cardiac output have? Diabetes mellitus What is defined as a disease process in which there is a deficiency of insulin hormone? Keytones What are abnormal constituents of urine and indicate diabetes or starvation? A1C and fasting blood glucose How is type 2 diabetes best tested? Lethargy, irritability, difficulty eating, and dry hair and skin. How is Hypothyroidism characterized? Erythropoietin Injection Treatment of anemia in someone with chronic renal failure, related to Kidneys not producing enough Erythropoietin. Thyroxine and triodothryrone deficiencies What might a child with impaired cognitive function have? Calcium What is released from the bone due to increased production of the parathyroid hormone? Medications to suppress thyroid function. When a patient presents with exophthalmos, strained appearance to the face, extreme nervousness and a goiter, what medications might be necessary? Hyperparathyroidism is often accompanied by Skeletal fractures By hx and physical examination and extreme pain. How can testicular torsion best be diagnosed? Culture of the penis drainage (ewww) How is gonorrhea in males diagnosed? When urinary function is threatened? When is benign prostatic hypertrophy treated by laser and ultrasound and transurethral prostatectomy? What can inhibit a female athlete's ability to conceive? Weight, menstrual history, and degree of athleticism Menopause is described as a lack of menses for 6 months. Placenta previa, gestational diabetes, and gestational hypertension What are three disorders that may occur during pregnancy? trichomoniasis Vaginal secretions of yellow or green frothy discharge characterizes what? Eclampsia and toxemia What are two disorders experienced in pregnancy and diagnosed by hypertension and proteinuria? Ischemic Stroke Caused by a clot obstructing blood flow to the brain. Hemorrhagic Stroke Results from bleeding into or around the brain. Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) Temporary disruption of blood flow to the brain, resolving within minutes to hours. Neuropathy Nerve damage or dysfunction leading to various symptoms. Diabetic Neuropathy Nerve damage due to prolonged high blood sugar levels. Intracerebral Hemorrhage Bleeding directly into the brain tissue. Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Bleeding into the space between the brain and its covering tissues. Epidural Hematoma Bleeding between the brain's outer layer and the skull. Subdural Hematoma Bleeding between the brain's tough outer membrane and the middle layer. Computed Tomography (CT) Scan Imaging study to visualize the extent and location of brain injuries. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Scan Imaging technique providing detailed images of brain structures. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Fluid in the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Photophobia Sensitivity to light due to meningeal irritation. Alcoholic Neuropathy Nerve damage resulting from chronic alcohol abuse. Autoimmune Neuropathy Immune system attacks nerve tissues. Toxic Neuropathy Nerve damage from exposure to toxins. Genetic Neuropathy Nerve damage due to inherited genetic disorders. Vitamin Deficiency Neuropathy Nerve damage from deficiencies in vitamins like B12. Traumatic Neuropathy Direct nerve damage from physical trauma. Infectious Neuropathy Nerve damage caused by infections like HIV/AIDS. Nutritional Neuropathy Nerve damage due to deficiencies in minerals like copper. Neuropathic Symptoms Include numbness, burning pain, muscle weakness, and coordination problems. TIAs Treatment Focuses on preventing future strokes through medications and lifestyle changes. Hemorrhagic Stroke Treatment Aims to stop bleeding, reduce pressure, and manage complications. Elevated Intracranial Pressure (ICP) Significant concern with head trauma and intracranial bleeding. Seizures Can be triggered by a subarachnoid hematoma. Visual disturbances May include blurred or double vision. Altered mental status Manifests as confusion or changes in behavior. Decreased level of consciousness Patients appear drowsy or difficult to wake. Diagnosis Involves imaging studies like CT or MRI scans. Degenerative nerve disorders Impact motor or sensory nerve fibers. Parkinson disease Results from loss of dopamine-producing cells. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) Involves loss of upper and lower motor neurons. Huntington disease Results in involuntary motor symptoms and cognitive decline. Guillain-Barre Leads to progressive limb weakness in days to weeks. Multiple sclerosis Results in inflammation and damage to CNS myelin. Myasthenia gravis Autoimmune disease attacking Ach receptors. Optic and vestibulocochlear nerves Responsible for vision, hearing, and balance. Glaucoma Damages optic nerve due to increased eye pressure. Cataracts Characterized by clouding of the lens. Retinal detachment Occurs when the retina pulls away from its position. Diabetic Retinopathy Caused by damage to blood vessels in the retina. Ménière's disease Caused by an increase in endolymph in the inner ear. Trauma Can cause perforation, earache, and hearing loss. Heberden and Bouchard nodes Osteoarthritis hallmarks in hands Sprain Ligament overstretch with tear Grade 2 Sprain Partial ligament tear, swelling, bruising Strain Overstretch of ligaments and muscle Muscle Contusion Bruise, crushed muscle fiber, torn blood vessels Closed Fracture Bone fractured but not displaced Compression Fracture Crushing of cancellous bone Avulsion Fracture Fragment separation at ligament/tendon site Greenstick Fracture Incomplete break, cortex flexed Soft Tissue Injury Involves contractile and inert structures Neurovascular Injury Assessment of pulses, sensation, color Fracture and Inflammatory Stage Hematoma, WBC infiltration in bone Granulation Stage Fibroblast, vascular tissue growth Callus Stage Osteoblast, chondroblast in granulation tissue Lamellar Bone Deposition Ossification, callus replaced with bone Remodeling Stage Osteoclast, Osteoblast remodel site Dislocation Treatment Relocating joint back into place Rhabdomyolysis Muscle tissue breakdown, myoglobin release Burn Immune Effects Impacts immunity, alters cellular response Renal Response to Burns Vasoconstriction, ADH release, electrolyte imbalance Superficial Burn Affects epidermis, heals without scarring Partial Thickness Burn Damages epidermis, varying dermis depths Full Thickness Burn Extends through all skin layers, tissue destruction Melanoma Stages Benign nevus, Dysplastic nevus, Metastasis ABCDE Traits Asymmetry, Border, Color, Diameter, Evolving Squamous Cell Red, crusted patch on skin, nonhealing ulcer Basal Cell Common, dome-shaped bump, covered by vessels Albinism Melanin deficiency disorder Intracellular fluid (ICF) Fluid inside cells, vital for cell functions and shape. Extracellular fluid (ECF) Fluid outside cells, crucial for nutrient transport and homeostasis. Interstitial fluid Fluid between cells, aids in nutrient exchange and waste removal. Hypertonic solution Solution with higher solute concentration, causing cell shrinkage. Hypotonic solution Solution with lower solute concentration, causing cell swelling. Isotonic solution Solution with equal solute concentration, maintaining cell equilibrium. Osmotic pressure Pressure from water movement due to solute concentration difference. Oncotic pressure Pressure from proteins like albumin, maintaining fluid balance. Electrolytes Include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate. Proteins Include albumin, globulins, fibrinogen. Nutrients Include glucose, amino acids, fatty acids. Waste products Include urea, creatinine, uric acid. Starling's law of capillary forces Balances hydrostatic and oncotic pressures in capillaries. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) Regulates blood volume and pressure through hormonal cascade. Acid Substance donating protons in water, pH 7. Base (alkali) Substance accepting protons or donating hydroxide ions, pH 7. pH scale Measures acidity or alkalinity, pH 0-14, neutral at 7. Buffers Chemical substances stabilizing pH by proton exchange. Compensation Buffers' role in maintaining body pH stability. Hyponatremia Low sodium levels, symptoms include nausea, seizures. Hypernatremia High sodium levels, symptoms include thirst, coma. Hypokalemia Low potassium levels, symptoms include muscle weakness, arrhythmias. Hyperkalemia High potassium levels, symptoms include palpitations, cardiac arrest. Hypocalcemia Low calcium levels, symptoms include muscle cramps, seizures. Hypercalcemia High calcium levels, symptoms include fatigue, kidney stones. Hypophosphatemia Low phosphate levels, symptoms include weakness, respiratory failure. Phosphate Replacement Treatment method for low phosphate levels, administered orally or intravenously. Hyperphosphatemia Condition with high phosphate levels, leading to symptoms like muscle cramps and joint pain. Hypomagnesemia Low magnesium levels causing symptoms such as muscle cramps and seizures. Hypermagnesemia Excess magnesium levels resulting in symptoms like muscle weakness and hypotension. Anion Negatively charged ion like chloride, bicarbonate, or phosphate. Cation Positively charged ion like sodium, potassium, or calcium. Anion Gap Measure of unmeasured anions in blood, calculated by cation-anion concentrations. Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) Diabetes complication with high blood ketones causing metabolic acidosis. PO2 Partial pressure of oxygen in blood, normal range 75-100 mmHg. SaO2 Oxygen saturation in blood, normal range 95%-100%. Respiratory Acidosis Elevated PCO2 leading to decreased blood pH, caused by CO2 retention. Hypercapnia High CO2 levels triggering increased respiratory rate to eliminate excess CO2. Hypoxemia Low oxygen levels in the blood. Hyperoxemia High oxygen levels in the blood. Hypocapnia Low CO2 levels in the blood. Metabolic Acidosis Primary decrease in blood pH due to increased non-respiratory acids or bicarbonate loss. Metabolic Alkalosis Condition with increased blood pH due to excess bicarbonate levels. Respiratory Alkalosis Decreased PCO2 leading to increased blood pH, caused by hyperventilation. Compensatory Mechanism Body's response to maintain acid-base balance, like respiratory rate adjustments. Electrolyte Balance Equilibrium of ions like sodium, potassium, calcium in the body. Acid-Base Disorders Imbalances in blood pH levels, categorized as metabolic or respiratory. Chemoreceptors Sensors detecting blood CO2 levels, influencing respiratory rate. Bicarbonate Buffer System Regulates blood pH by balancing carbonic acid and bicarbonate levels. Potassium-wasting Diuretics Medications increasing potassium excretion, leading to hypokalemia Innate Immunity Non-specific defense mechanism against pathogens Adaptive Immunity Specific defense mechanism tailored to particular pathogens Anatomical Barriers Physical and chemical defenses like skin and stomach acid Antibodies Proteins produced by B cells to target antigens Memory Cells Cells formed after successful immune response for future recognition Vaccination Introduction of weakened pathogens to trigger immune response Inflammatory Mediators Substances regulating inflammation and immune response Phagocyte Cell that engulfs and destroys pathogens through phagocytosis Dendritic Cells Cells capturing and presenting antigens to initiate immune responses Mast Cells Cells releasing histamine and cytokines in response to stimuli Helper T-Cell Cells regulating immune responses by secreting cytokines Interstitial Fluid Fluid surrounding cells, aiding in nutrient exchange Red Blood Cells Cells transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide in the bloodstream Pathogen Agents causing disease by infecting host organisms Chemokines Molecules recruiting immune cells to sites of infection Capillary Endothelial Cells Cells regulating fluid and immune cell passage in capillaries Histamine Molecule inducing vasodilation and inflammation in allergic reactions Vasodilation Widening of blood vessels at sites of inflammation or injury Neutrophil Abundant white blood cell involved in phagocytosis Marginalization Passive redistribution of blood cells in response to inflammation Diapedesis/Extravasation Process of immune cells exiting bloodstream to reach infection sites B-cells Lymphocytes producing antibodies upon activation Complement Proteins Blood plasma proteins aiding immune response through various functions Exudate Fluid rich in proteins and immune cells at inflammation sites DNA Mutation Permanent change in DNA sequence, affecting genetic information Gene Locus 14p17.3 Specific location on chromosome 14's short arm at position 17.3 Transcription Process of synthesizing mRNA from DNA in the nucleus Translation Conversion of mRNA into a polypeptide chain at ribosomes Chromosomes in Human Cells Human somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs Gene DNA segment with instructions for protein or RNA production Allele Specific variant of a gene affecting traits Polydactyly Genetic condition with extra fingers or toes Phenotype of Heterozygous Polydactyly Appearance of individuals with one polydactyly allele Polydactyly: Dominant or Recessive Trait Polydactyly expression based on genetic mutation dominance Possible Genotypes for Polydactyly (P) and Five Fingers (p) Genetic combinations determining polydactyly presence