Page |1
CMY3705: VICTIMOLOGY
WHAT IS VICTIMOLOGY?
Victimology is a criminological branch that studies the relationship between an injured party and
an offender, examining causes and consequences of suffering. It investigates whether
perpetrators were strangers, acquaintances, friends, family members, or intimates, and how
criminal victimization can result in economic, physical, and psychological harm.
UNIT 1: OVERVIEW
• Victims of crime were often marginalized or ignored in the 20th century.
• The field of Victimology emerged in the 1940s with the study of crime victims by Von Hentig
and Mendelsohn.
• They theorized that victims' behaviour and attitude contributed to the crime.
• The field initially focused on examining how victims shared responsibility for specific crimes
with criminal offenders.
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
• Victims: persons who have suffered harm — physical, mental, emotional, economic, or
impairment of rights — due to acts violating criminal laws.
• crime victim: person, group, entity that suffers injury/ loss because of illegal activity.
- The harm can be physical, psychological, or economic in nature.
• If the victim is an institutional entity, harm can be inflicted by individuals or representatives
of another entity.
• Group harms: addressed under civil or constitutional law, but hate crimes are an emerging
area in criminal law, though criminal law often focuses on individual cases
• There are different categories of victims:
• Primary victims – directly harmed by the crime.
• Secondary victims – experience harm indirectly (e.g., family, close partners).
• Tertiary victims – experience harm vicariously, such as through media exposure.
• Many individuals prefer the term “survivor” over “victim” due to the negative connotations
associated with the latter.
UNIT 2: VICTIM SUPPORT AND EMPOWERMENT
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
, Page |2
• Secondary Victimisation: ill-informed, insensitive, blaming treatment of victims by criminal
justice officials.
• Can include victimisation by the victim's family, friends, or community.
• Often involves blaming the victim for the crime or contributing to it.
• Processes involved in secondary victimisation begin during the court process.
HOW DOES SECONDARY VICTIMISATION OCCUR?
• Secondary victimisation often begins when victims first report the crime to the police.
• Women and children, particularly victims of sexual assault or rape, frequently face police
disbelief and insensitive treatment, which initiates secondary victimisation.
• Victims are sometimes discouraged or prevented from laying charges, increasing their
negativity and vulnerability.
• Family and friends may also discourage reporting, worsening the victim’s trauma and
feelings of isolation.
• Community resistance and poor treatment by justice officials can further exacerbate
trauma.
• Victims often do not understand court procedures, evidentiary law, or trial dynamics,
leading to confusion and distress.
• secondary victimisation in the court process includes:
o Lack of private waiting or reporting facilities.
o Failure to inform victims about court procedures and evidence.
o Failure to explain questions or procedures during testimony.
o Lack of updates on the progress of the investigation or trial.
• Long waiting periods before medical examination or court appearances increase stress and
trauma.
• During the trial, victims’ rights may be violated (e.g. when prosecutors fail to object to
inappropriate cross-examination, causing victims to feel humiliated/ guilty)
WHAT IS VICTIM EMPOWERMENT AND SUPPORT?
Victim empowerment is the process of helping individuals who have experienced conflict and
violence overcome their grief and resentment, enabling them to become more positive,
proactive, and self-motivated members of society. It involves strategies and public policies that
provide communities with the skills and support to advocate for victims' rights and needs amidst
institutionalized and historic discrimination.
VICTIM SUPPORT MODELS
, Page |3
There are two main models for victim services: the first, which views services as welfare or
charity, and the second, which sees victim services as part of criminal justice administration,
governed by human rights or a just society. Both models have practical examples, and the ideal
victim policy combines both. A third model, which sees victim policies as an integral part of crime
prevention, is also important.
1. The Care Model
• Focuses on state compensation schemes for victims of crime.
• Such schemes were introduced in many Western countries
• Aims to provide financial and welfare support to victims.
• Limitations: not all victims qualify, and the process can be slow and burdensome.
• Especially valuable for poor victims and those in developing nations without medical
insurance.
• Includes rape crisis centres, shelter homes, and general victim support schemes.
• Initially, these services were aimed at female victims, but since the 1980s they have expanded
to all victims of all crime types.
• In countries like the UK and the Netherlands, all victims are routinely contacted by trained
volunteers offering practical and emotional support.
• Police ask victims for consent to share their contact details with support organisations — an
approach that has proven effective.
2. The Criminal Justice Model
• Integrates victims into the criminal justice process.
• Victims are:
- Considered by the police.
- Referred to support agencies.
- Given crime prevention advice.
- Informed of investigation outcomes or trial results.
• Victims have the right to submit a Victim Impact Statement to explain how the crime affected
them.
• They may also receive restitution (compensation) from the offender.
• In some regions (e.g. parts of the USA), victims can express opinions on sentencing or
punishment.
3. The Prevention Model
• Sees victim services as a crime prevention strategy.
• Highlights that police and prosecutors often lack motivation to help victims because it’s not
seen as part of their core duties.
• Emphasises the importance of victim cooperation for successful crime reporting,
investigation, and conviction.
• Suggests measuring police performance by the satisfaction levels of victims.
• Argues that both victims and potential victims can help prevent crime by improving self-
protection and reducing opportunities for offenders.
, Page |4
• Notes that better victim protection does not always cause crime displacement to other
targets.
• Also stresses the need for offender rehabilitation to prevent reoffending.
• Concludes that victim-oriented prevention works and contributes to overall crime reduction.
SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE ON VICTIM EMPOWERMENT AND SUPPORT
➢ South African scenario regarding models of care
High victimisation rate:
• South Africa experiences high levels of criminal victimisation due to factors such as
economic deprivation, availability of targets, and structural causes of crime.
• A comprehensive crime policy is needed to address these causes.
Victim dissatisfaction:
• Many victims feel poorly treated by police and do not receive specialised help or support.
• Similar problems occur in other African nations.
Need for effective victim policies:
• Policies should combine both the care ideology and the criminal justice ideology.
• State compensation schemes could benefit poorer victims of violence.
• A nationwide network of victim support agencies (with volunteer involvement) is
recommended.
Justice and fairness:
• A purely care-oriented approach is insufficient — victims also want justice.
• The criminal justice system must meet this demand by protecting victim rights and ensuring
fair treatment.
• A comprehensive Bill of Rights for victims should include changes in law, procedures, and
professional conduct.
Victims’ role in prevention:
• Victims and communities can aid crime prevention by improving self-protection.
• Repeat victims can assist police by using security measures like burglar alarms.
• Fair treatment helps restore trust in the justice system and prevents vigilantism or “private
justice.”
CMY3705: VICTIMOLOGY
WHAT IS VICTIMOLOGY?
Victimology is a criminological branch that studies the relationship between an injured party and
an offender, examining causes and consequences of suffering. It investigates whether
perpetrators were strangers, acquaintances, friends, family members, or intimates, and how
criminal victimization can result in economic, physical, and psychological harm.
UNIT 1: OVERVIEW
• Victims of crime were often marginalized or ignored in the 20th century.
• The field of Victimology emerged in the 1940s with the study of crime victims by Von Hentig
and Mendelsohn.
• They theorized that victims' behaviour and attitude contributed to the crime.
• The field initially focused on examining how victims shared responsibility for specific crimes
with criminal offenders.
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
• Victims: persons who have suffered harm — physical, mental, emotional, economic, or
impairment of rights — due to acts violating criminal laws.
• crime victim: person, group, entity that suffers injury/ loss because of illegal activity.
- The harm can be physical, psychological, or economic in nature.
• If the victim is an institutional entity, harm can be inflicted by individuals or representatives
of another entity.
• Group harms: addressed under civil or constitutional law, but hate crimes are an emerging
area in criminal law, though criminal law often focuses on individual cases
• There are different categories of victims:
• Primary victims – directly harmed by the crime.
• Secondary victims – experience harm indirectly (e.g., family, close partners).
• Tertiary victims – experience harm vicariously, such as through media exposure.
• Many individuals prefer the term “survivor” over “victim” due to the negative connotations
associated with the latter.
UNIT 2: VICTIM SUPPORT AND EMPOWERMENT
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
, Page |2
• Secondary Victimisation: ill-informed, insensitive, blaming treatment of victims by criminal
justice officials.
• Can include victimisation by the victim's family, friends, or community.
• Often involves blaming the victim for the crime or contributing to it.
• Processes involved in secondary victimisation begin during the court process.
HOW DOES SECONDARY VICTIMISATION OCCUR?
• Secondary victimisation often begins when victims first report the crime to the police.
• Women and children, particularly victims of sexual assault or rape, frequently face police
disbelief and insensitive treatment, which initiates secondary victimisation.
• Victims are sometimes discouraged or prevented from laying charges, increasing their
negativity and vulnerability.
• Family and friends may also discourage reporting, worsening the victim’s trauma and
feelings of isolation.
• Community resistance and poor treatment by justice officials can further exacerbate
trauma.
• Victims often do not understand court procedures, evidentiary law, or trial dynamics,
leading to confusion and distress.
• secondary victimisation in the court process includes:
o Lack of private waiting or reporting facilities.
o Failure to inform victims about court procedures and evidence.
o Failure to explain questions or procedures during testimony.
o Lack of updates on the progress of the investigation or trial.
• Long waiting periods before medical examination or court appearances increase stress and
trauma.
• During the trial, victims’ rights may be violated (e.g. when prosecutors fail to object to
inappropriate cross-examination, causing victims to feel humiliated/ guilty)
WHAT IS VICTIM EMPOWERMENT AND SUPPORT?
Victim empowerment is the process of helping individuals who have experienced conflict and
violence overcome their grief and resentment, enabling them to become more positive,
proactive, and self-motivated members of society. It involves strategies and public policies that
provide communities with the skills and support to advocate for victims' rights and needs amidst
institutionalized and historic discrimination.
VICTIM SUPPORT MODELS
, Page |3
There are two main models for victim services: the first, which views services as welfare or
charity, and the second, which sees victim services as part of criminal justice administration,
governed by human rights or a just society. Both models have practical examples, and the ideal
victim policy combines both. A third model, which sees victim policies as an integral part of crime
prevention, is also important.
1. The Care Model
• Focuses on state compensation schemes for victims of crime.
• Such schemes were introduced in many Western countries
• Aims to provide financial and welfare support to victims.
• Limitations: not all victims qualify, and the process can be slow and burdensome.
• Especially valuable for poor victims and those in developing nations without medical
insurance.
• Includes rape crisis centres, shelter homes, and general victim support schemes.
• Initially, these services were aimed at female victims, but since the 1980s they have expanded
to all victims of all crime types.
• In countries like the UK and the Netherlands, all victims are routinely contacted by trained
volunteers offering practical and emotional support.
• Police ask victims for consent to share their contact details with support organisations — an
approach that has proven effective.
2. The Criminal Justice Model
• Integrates victims into the criminal justice process.
• Victims are:
- Considered by the police.
- Referred to support agencies.
- Given crime prevention advice.
- Informed of investigation outcomes or trial results.
• Victims have the right to submit a Victim Impact Statement to explain how the crime affected
them.
• They may also receive restitution (compensation) from the offender.
• In some regions (e.g. parts of the USA), victims can express opinions on sentencing or
punishment.
3. The Prevention Model
• Sees victim services as a crime prevention strategy.
• Highlights that police and prosecutors often lack motivation to help victims because it’s not
seen as part of their core duties.
• Emphasises the importance of victim cooperation for successful crime reporting,
investigation, and conviction.
• Suggests measuring police performance by the satisfaction levels of victims.
• Argues that both victims and potential victims can help prevent crime by improving self-
protection and reducing opportunities for offenders.
, Page |4
• Notes that better victim protection does not always cause crime displacement to other
targets.
• Also stresses the need for offender rehabilitation to prevent reoffending.
• Concludes that victim-oriented prevention works and contributes to overall crime reduction.
SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE ON VICTIM EMPOWERMENT AND SUPPORT
➢ South African scenario regarding models of care
High victimisation rate:
• South Africa experiences high levels of criminal victimisation due to factors such as
economic deprivation, availability of targets, and structural causes of crime.
• A comprehensive crime policy is needed to address these causes.
Victim dissatisfaction:
• Many victims feel poorly treated by police and do not receive specialised help or support.
• Similar problems occur in other African nations.
Need for effective victim policies:
• Policies should combine both the care ideology and the criminal justice ideology.
• State compensation schemes could benefit poorer victims of violence.
• A nationwide network of victim support agencies (with volunteer involvement) is
recommended.
Justice and fairness:
• A purely care-oriented approach is insufficient — victims also want justice.
• The criminal justice system must meet this demand by protecting victim rights and ensuring
fair treatment.
• A comprehensive Bill of Rights for victims should include changes in law, procedures, and
professional conduct.
Victims’ role in prevention:
• Victims and communities can aid crime prevention by improving self-protection.
• Repeat victims can assist police by using security measures like burglar alarms.
• Fair treatment helps restore trust in the justice system and prevents vigilantism or “private
justice.”
