Summary From Language to Linguistics -
week 5–7
19/10/2025
Week 5: Language in the Narrow Sense - Uniquely human + from PS rules to X-bar theory................... 3
5.1 Language, uniquely human? - articles........................................................................................3
5.1.1 Rivas (2005) - Recent Use of Signs by Chimpanzees in Interactions with Humans...........3
5.1.2 Ronan & Schneider (2023) - Can Chat GPT solve a linguistics exam?............................... 4
5.2 Distinguishing complements & adjuncts....................................................................................5
5.3 The binary branching hypothesis............................................................................................... 6
5.4 The skeletal structure of all phrases...........................................................................................7
5.5 Relations & dependencies..........................................................................................................7
5.6 C-command: reflexive binding................................................................................................... 8
5.7 Coordinations in X-bar................................................................................................................9
Week 6: X-files: Zooming into structure...............................................................................................10
6.1 S-selection & C-selection......................................................................................................... 10
6.3 X-raying the sentence: I(nflectional)P/T(ense)P....................................................................... 10
6.4 Verb movement & Affix-hopping............................................................................................. 11
6.5 The subject: VP-internal subject hypothesis............................................................................ 11
6.6 Nominal case assignment by Io................................................................................................12
6.7 Ditransitive verbs (again)......................................................................................................... 12
6.8 X-raying the IP: agreement.......................................................................................................13
6.9 Finite clauses............................................................................................................................13
6.10 Finite clauses: polar questions............................................................................................... 15
6.11 Finite clauses: constituent questions..................................................................................... 15
6.12 Finite clauses & case.............................................................................................................. 16
6.13 Non-finite clauses.................................................................................................................. 16
6.14 X-raying CPs: finite & non-finite............................................................................................. 18
6.15 Small clauses.......................................................................................................................... 18
6.16 A side note: Adverbs & multiple adjectives........................................................................... 18
6.17 UG & Parameterization.......................................................................................................... 19
6.17.1 Null subjects................................................................................................................. 19
6.17.2 Headedness.................................................................................................................. 19
6.17.3 Configurational VS. Non-configurational word order................................................... 20
Week 7: Syntax & Semantics: Mapping Form to Meaning.................................................................... 21
7.1 Semantics & Pragmatics...........................................................................................................21
1
, 7.1.1 Propositions & Sentences...............................................................................................21
7.1.2 Levels of semantics.........................................................................................................21
7.2 Types of ambiguity & Scope ambiguity.................................................................................... 21
7.2.1 Conjunctions in X-bar..................................................................................................... 22
7.3 Compositionality...................................................................................................................... 23
7.4 Implication relations................................................................................................................ 23
7.4.1 Entailments & Implicatures............................................................................................ 23
7.4.2 Presuppositions & Factive verbs.....................................................................................23
7.5 Wide (subject) scope & Inverse scope..................................................................................... 24
7.6 Binding Theory......................................................................................................................... 24
7.6.1 Principle A: reflexive pronouns.......................................................................................25
7.6.2 Principle B: pronouns..................................................................................................... 26
7.6.3 Principle C: R-expressions...............................................................................................26
8. Practice sentences & tree examples.................................................................................................27
2
, Week 5: Language in the Narrow Sense - Uniquely
human + from PS rules to X-bar theory
5.1 Language, uniquely human? - articles
5.1.1 Rivas (2005) - Recent Use of Signs by Chimpanzees in Interactions with Humans
RQ: Is chimpanzee sign language use communicatively intentional? What types and semantic categories
of signs are used? Are sign combinations syntactically structured?
Key Findings:
The analysis revealed three major differences between the chimpanzee signing observed and (early)
human language:
1. Communicative Intentions (Acquisitive Motivation):
○ The chimpanzees' predominant communicative intention was to make requests.
○ A total of 2,454 utterances, or 86% of all utterances, were requests for objects and
actions. Requests for objects (65% of the total) were more frequent than requests for
actions (18%). When considering only unprompted utterances, the percentage of
requests rose to 94%.
○ The use of signs was mostly limited to requesting (food), whereas humans use language
for a wide range of intentions such as naming, describing, asking questions, and
expressing internal states. (and when requesting, they request other things than food)
→ These findings support Terrace's description of chimpanzee signing as predominantly acquisitive in
nature.
2. Vocabulary Use and Wild Card Signs:
○ The chimpanzees predominantly used object and action signs.
○ The sign use was mostly restricted to object and action signs (especially edibles), request
markers (GIMME, HURRY), the sign THAT/THERE/YOU, and the chimpanzee's own name
sign.
○ The chimpanzee's own name sign, along with THAT/THERE/YOU, HUG, and GOOD, often
functioned as wild card signs. These signs were used instrumentally to clarify identity or
to manipulate the human into fulfilling a request more quickly.
3. Combinations and Structure:
○ The study found no evidence for semantic or syntactic structure in combinations of
signs. Human children, in contrast, quickly express semantic relations when combining
words.
○ Analysis of two-sign combinations found that potential candidates for semantic relations
(like action + object or agent + action) often appeared to be unrelated strings or
stereotypic patterns, sometimes involving asking for two items simultaneously (e.g.,
DRINK GUM or CLOTHES FOOD/EAT).
3
week 5–7
19/10/2025
Week 5: Language in the Narrow Sense - Uniquely human + from PS rules to X-bar theory................... 3
5.1 Language, uniquely human? - articles........................................................................................3
5.1.1 Rivas (2005) - Recent Use of Signs by Chimpanzees in Interactions with Humans...........3
5.1.2 Ronan & Schneider (2023) - Can Chat GPT solve a linguistics exam?............................... 4
5.2 Distinguishing complements & adjuncts....................................................................................5
5.3 The binary branching hypothesis............................................................................................... 6
5.4 The skeletal structure of all phrases...........................................................................................7
5.5 Relations & dependencies..........................................................................................................7
5.6 C-command: reflexive binding................................................................................................... 8
5.7 Coordinations in X-bar................................................................................................................9
Week 6: X-files: Zooming into structure...............................................................................................10
6.1 S-selection & C-selection......................................................................................................... 10
6.3 X-raying the sentence: I(nflectional)P/T(ense)P....................................................................... 10
6.4 Verb movement & Affix-hopping............................................................................................. 11
6.5 The subject: VP-internal subject hypothesis............................................................................ 11
6.6 Nominal case assignment by Io................................................................................................12
6.7 Ditransitive verbs (again)......................................................................................................... 12
6.8 X-raying the IP: agreement.......................................................................................................13
6.9 Finite clauses............................................................................................................................13
6.10 Finite clauses: polar questions............................................................................................... 15
6.11 Finite clauses: constituent questions..................................................................................... 15
6.12 Finite clauses & case.............................................................................................................. 16
6.13 Non-finite clauses.................................................................................................................. 16
6.14 X-raying CPs: finite & non-finite............................................................................................. 18
6.15 Small clauses.......................................................................................................................... 18
6.16 A side note: Adverbs & multiple adjectives........................................................................... 18
6.17 UG & Parameterization.......................................................................................................... 19
6.17.1 Null subjects................................................................................................................. 19
6.17.2 Headedness.................................................................................................................. 19
6.17.3 Configurational VS. Non-configurational word order................................................... 20
Week 7: Syntax & Semantics: Mapping Form to Meaning.................................................................... 21
7.1 Semantics & Pragmatics...........................................................................................................21
1
, 7.1.1 Propositions & Sentences...............................................................................................21
7.1.2 Levels of semantics.........................................................................................................21
7.2 Types of ambiguity & Scope ambiguity.................................................................................... 21
7.2.1 Conjunctions in X-bar..................................................................................................... 22
7.3 Compositionality...................................................................................................................... 23
7.4 Implication relations................................................................................................................ 23
7.4.1 Entailments & Implicatures............................................................................................ 23
7.4.2 Presuppositions & Factive verbs.....................................................................................23
7.5 Wide (subject) scope & Inverse scope..................................................................................... 24
7.6 Binding Theory......................................................................................................................... 24
7.6.1 Principle A: reflexive pronouns.......................................................................................25
7.6.2 Principle B: pronouns..................................................................................................... 26
7.6.3 Principle C: R-expressions...............................................................................................26
8. Practice sentences & tree examples.................................................................................................27
2
, Week 5: Language in the Narrow Sense - Uniquely
human + from PS rules to X-bar theory
5.1 Language, uniquely human? - articles
5.1.1 Rivas (2005) - Recent Use of Signs by Chimpanzees in Interactions with Humans
RQ: Is chimpanzee sign language use communicatively intentional? What types and semantic categories
of signs are used? Are sign combinations syntactically structured?
Key Findings:
The analysis revealed three major differences between the chimpanzee signing observed and (early)
human language:
1. Communicative Intentions (Acquisitive Motivation):
○ The chimpanzees' predominant communicative intention was to make requests.
○ A total of 2,454 utterances, or 86% of all utterances, were requests for objects and
actions. Requests for objects (65% of the total) were more frequent than requests for
actions (18%). When considering only unprompted utterances, the percentage of
requests rose to 94%.
○ The use of signs was mostly limited to requesting (food), whereas humans use language
for a wide range of intentions such as naming, describing, asking questions, and
expressing internal states. (and when requesting, they request other things than food)
→ These findings support Terrace's description of chimpanzee signing as predominantly acquisitive in
nature.
2. Vocabulary Use and Wild Card Signs:
○ The chimpanzees predominantly used object and action signs.
○ The sign use was mostly restricted to object and action signs (especially edibles), request
markers (GIMME, HURRY), the sign THAT/THERE/YOU, and the chimpanzee's own name
sign.
○ The chimpanzee's own name sign, along with THAT/THERE/YOU, HUG, and GOOD, often
functioned as wild card signs. These signs were used instrumentally to clarify identity or
to manipulate the human into fulfilling a request more quickly.
3. Combinations and Structure:
○ The study found no evidence for semantic or syntactic structure in combinations of
signs. Human children, in contrast, quickly express semantic relations when combining
words.
○ Analysis of two-sign combinations found that potential candidates for semantic relations
(like action + object or agent + action) often appeared to be unrelated strings or
stereotypic patterns, sometimes involving asking for two items simultaneously (e.g.,
DRINK GUM or CLOTHES FOOD/EAT).
3
