1
A Level Research Methods
To learn Comments
Case studies +They provide rich, in-depth idiographic data.
This can give a researcher insight into the
Case studies provide a detailed and in-depth complex interaction of many factors i.e. can
analysis of an individual, group, institution or give a holistic view of an individual.
event. Case studies often involve analysis of
unusual individuals or events (e.g. KF or the +They can be used to study very rare
Czech twins). experiences, which could not be experimented
for practical or ethical reasons. For example,
Usually case studies involve collection of individuals who have suffered extreme
qualitative data using interviews, observations, deprivation in childhood.
questionnaires or a combination of these. The
person may also be subjected to psychological -They can be limited. They study unique
testing to assess what they are or are not individuals, who often have particular or
capable of - this may produce quantitative data. unusual characteristics. For example, HM had
suffered epilepsy for many years, as well as the
Case studies are central to an idiographic brain damage caused by the removal of his
approach i.e. they focus on the individual case hippocampus.
as a means of understanding behaviour, rather
than aiming to formulate general laws of -As they often generate lots of qualitative data,
behaviour. they can make analysis time consuming. Also
analysis can be subject to bias (a researcher’s
interpretation). Freud’s interpretations of his
own case studies, for example, have often been
criticized for this reason.
Content analysis
Content analysis - a type of research in which +It can avoid ethical issues by studying
people are studied indirectly via the people/behaviour indirectly – Allows
communication they have produced (e.g. researchers to study things that for practical or
transcripts from EWT statements, crime ethical reasons they may not be able to any
records, the media). other way
CA is often used when the kind of information +Qualitative and quantitative data can be
sought is either too costly or not possible or gathered giving very detailed insight into the
practical to obtain in other ways. Content topic, person or group
analysis aims to summarise the data in a
systematic way so that conclusions can be +When sources can be retained or assessed by
drawn. others the CA can be replicated and tested for
reliability
Content analysis using coding
-Observer bias may weaken the objectivity and
Often Content analysis involves converting validity of findings because different
qualitative data into quantitative data to make researchers may interpret the meaning of
it easier to analyse and examine. Usually this behavior differently (especially in thematic
means you quantify (code) the data by counting analysis)
how many times common ‘things’ occur. E.g.
how many people mention a mask or balaclava, -People are studied indirectly (out of the
a weapon, a getaway vehicle, broken glass, context in which the behavior occurred) – again
,2
blood, etc causing subjectivity
Content analysis using coding, step-by-step
procedure:
i. Gather qualitative data together from all
participants (usually in a written form but you
might also perform CA on video recorded
footage)
ii. Read/watch through it noting any common
categories (e.g. behaviour types) relevant to
your aims
iii. Add up how many times each category or
behaviour occurs in all of the data
iv. The data has now been quantified and you
can compare totals to see which behaviours are
more or less common
Content analysis using thematic analysis
A theme in content analysis refers to any idea
that is recurrent - it keeps ‘coming up’ in the
communication being studied. These themes
are likely to be more descriptive than the
coding units above.
Thematic analysis might also be used in a case
study or self-report (e.g. offender surveys).
The findings are presented in a purely
verbal/written form – there will be no
conversion to numbers.
The data is read through and attempted to be
organised by identifying and categorising
common themes.
Step-by-step procedure:
i. Gather qualitative data together from all
participants
ii. Read through the data repeatedly in an effort
to identify recurrent themes
iii. Use the themes to create broader categories
(these may change as you analyse the data
more thoroughly
, 3
iv. All data is read and re-read until all emerging
themes have been identified that account for
all of the data gathered (These themes and
categories might later be used to collect new
sets of data to test the validity of the ideas).
v. When the report is written up, evidence for
the themes would come directly from the data
e.g. quotes.
Reliability
Ways of assessing reliability:
Reliability refers to consistency of procedures
and findings i.e. are the measures applied in the i. Test-retest reliability
same way to all participants/do you get the
same findings? The same test is given to the same participants
on two occasions to see if the same results are
If findings are reliable then you could conclude obtained. Usually there is a short interval
that you have established a fact (e.g. water between the tests such as a week or two so
always boils at 100 degrees). This enhances that people don’t remember their answers.
objectivity.
A correlation coefficient would be calculated
for the pairs of scores (e.g. Beck’s Depression
Inventory was found to have 0.9 correlation
coefficient = very reliable). NB a correlation of
0.8 or above is generally considered acceptable.
ii. Inter-observer (AKA inter-rater) reliability
The extent to which there is agreement in the
results of two or more observers of the same
behavior. Two observers would use same
behavioural categories/discuss and agree on an
interpretation of each of the social behaviours
in the category system. The observers would
record their results separately then a
correlation coefficient would be calculated for
the pairs of scores. E.g. A 0.8 correlation would
A Level Research Methods
To learn Comments
Case studies +They provide rich, in-depth idiographic data.
This can give a researcher insight into the
Case studies provide a detailed and in-depth complex interaction of many factors i.e. can
analysis of an individual, group, institution or give a holistic view of an individual.
event. Case studies often involve analysis of
unusual individuals or events (e.g. KF or the +They can be used to study very rare
Czech twins). experiences, which could not be experimented
for practical or ethical reasons. For example,
Usually case studies involve collection of individuals who have suffered extreme
qualitative data using interviews, observations, deprivation in childhood.
questionnaires or a combination of these. The
person may also be subjected to psychological -They can be limited. They study unique
testing to assess what they are or are not individuals, who often have particular or
capable of - this may produce quantitative data. unusual characteristics. For example, HM had
suffered epilepsy for many years, as well as the
Case studies are central to an idiographic brain damage caused by the removal of his
approach i.e. they focus on the individual case hippocampus.
as a means of understanding behaviour, rather
than aiming to formulate general laws of -As they often generate lots of qualitative data,
behaviour. they can make analysis time consuming. Also
analysis can be subject to bias (a researcher’s
interpretation). Freud’s interpretations of his
own case studies, for example, have often been
criticized for this reason.
Content analysis
Content analysis - a type of research in which +It can avoid ethical issues by studying
people are studied indirectly via the people/behaviour indirectly – Allows
communication they have produced (e.g. researchers to study things that for practical or
transcripts from EWT statements, crime ethical reasons they may not be able to any
records, the media). other way
CA is often used when the kind of information +Qualitative and quantitative data can be
sought is either too costly or not possible or gathered giving very detailed insight into the
practical to obtain in other ways. Content topic, person or group
analysis aims to summarise the data in a
systematic way so that conclusions can be +When sources can be retained or assessed by
drawn. others the CA can be replicated and tested for
reliability
Content analysis using coding
-Observer bias may weaken the objectivity and
Often Content analysis involves converting validity of findings because different
qualitative data into quantitative data to make researchers may interpret the meaning of
it easier to analyse and examine. Usually this behavior differently (especially in thematic
means you quantify (code) the data by counting analysis)
how many times common ‘things’ occur. E.g.
how many people mention a mask or balaclava, -People are studied indirectly (out of the
a weapon, a getaway vehicle, broken glass, context in which the behavior occurred) – again
,2
blood, etc causing subjectivity
Content analysis using coding, step-by-step
procedure:
i. Gather qualitative data together from all
participants (usually in a written form but you
might also perform CA on video recorded
footage)
ii. Read/watch through it noting any common
categories (e.g. behaviour types) relevant to
your aims
iii. Add up how many times each category or
behaviour occurs in all of the data
iv. The data has now been quantified and you
can compare totals to see which behaviours are
more or less common
Content analysis using thematic analysis
A theme in content analysis refers to any idea
that is recurrent - it keeps ‘coming up’ in the
communication being studied. These themes
are likely to be more descriptive than the
coding units above.
Thematic analysis might also be used in a case
study or self-report (e.g. offender surveys).
The findings are presented in a purely
verbal/written form – there will be no
conversion to numbers.
The data is read through and attempted to be
organised by identifying and categorising
common themes.
Step-by-step procedure:
i. Gather qualitative data together from all
participants
ii. Read through the data repeatedly in an effort
to identify recurrent themes
iii. Use the themes to create broader categories
(these may change as you analyse the data
more thoroughly
, 3
iv. All data is read and re-read until all emerging
themes have been identified that account for
all of the data gathered (These themes and
categories might later be used to collect new
sets of data to test the validity of the ideas).
v. When the report is written up, evidence for
the themes would come directly from the data
e.g. quotes.
Reliability
Ways of assessing reliability:
Reliability refers to consistency of procedures
and findings i.e. are the measures applied in the i. Test-retest reliability
same way to all participants/do you get the
same findings? The same test is given to the same participants
on two occasions to see if the same results are
If findings are reliable then you could conclude obtained. Usually there is a short interval
that you have established a fact (e.g. water between the tests such as a week or two so
always boils at 100 degrees). This enhances that people don’t remember their answers.
objectivity.
A correlation coefficient would be calculated
for the pairs of scores (e.g. Beck’s Depression
Inventory was found to have 0.9 correlation
coefficient = very reliable). NB a correlation of
0.8 or above is generally considered acceptable.
ii. Inter-observer (AKA inter-rater) reliability
The extent to which there is agreement in the
results of two or more observers of the same
behavior. Two observers would use same
behavioural categories/discuss and agree on an
interpretation of each of the social behaviours
in the category system. The observers would
record their results separately then a
correlation coefficient would be calculated for
the pairs of scores. E.g. A 0.8 correlation would
