HRPYC81 Project 2 Assignment 4 (FINAL
RESEARCH REPORT ANSWERS) 2025
(871594 )
HRPYC81 Project 2 Assignment 4 (FINAL RESEARCH REPORT ANSWERS) 2025
(871594 )
, HRPYC81 Project 2 Assignment 4 (FINAL
RESEARCH REPORT ANSWERS) 2025
(871594 )
University Of South Africa (Unisa)
Course
Research Report (HRPYC81)
Time perspectives: an underlying factor of human behaviours Research Area
Cognitive Psychology Number of Students Limited to 400 students Project
Description Humans have a unique ability to transcend the present and
mentally project themselves through time, a characteristic distinguishing us
from other animals (Stolarski et al., 2018, p. 593). This capacity to perceive
and conceive time has intrigued psychologists throughout the history of
scientific psychology, leading to research on time perspective and its
incorporation into psychological theories (e.g., William James, 1890; Piaget,
1946; Kurt Lewin, 1942; Bandura et al., 1997; cited from Stolarski et al.,
2018). For instance, Kurt Lewin’s famous life space model considered that
our perceptions of the past and the future (i.e., time frames) influence our
current behaviour. He defined time perspective (also known as time
orientation) as “the totality of the individual’s views of his psychological
future and psychological past existing at a given time” (Lewin, 1951, p. 75;
cited from Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014). Likewise, Bandura’s self-efficacy theory
(1997) proposes that efficacy beliefs are “grounded in past experiences,
current appraisals, and reflections on future options (cited from Zimbardo &
Boyd, 2014). One could argue that time perspective is essential in most
psychological theories beyond developmental models in psychology.
Zimbardo and colleagues proposed a broad conceptualization of time
perspective, namely “as a foundational process in both individual and
societal functioning” (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014, p. 18). More specifically, they
argue that time perspective is a cognitive process through which the
continual flows of personal and social experiences are assigned to time
frames (past, present, future), which gives order, coherence, and meaning to
those events. Zimbardo (2008) further argues that time perspective presents
a trait-like variable, distinguishing between individuals primarily focusing on
the past, present, or future time frame. Time perspective influences how we
encode, store, and recall experiences, shaping our expectations, goals,
contingencies, and imaginative scenarios. It also affects how we experience
the present, impacting factors such as life satisfaction (e.g., Shmotkin,
1991), resilience (e.g., Hatala et al., 2017), health and risk-taking (e.g., Boyd
& Zimbardo, 2006; Keough, 1999; Zimbardo et al., 1997), innovation (e.g.,
RESEARCH REPORT ANSWERS) 2025
(871594 )
HRPYC81 Project 2 Assignment 4 (FINAL RESEARCH REPORT ANSWERS) 2025
(871594 )
, HRPYC81 Project 2 Assignment 4 (FINAL
RESEARCH REPORT ANSWERS) 2025
(871594 )
University Of South Africa (Unisa)
Course
Research Report (HRPYC81)
Time perspectives: an underlying factor of human behaviours Research Area
Cognitive Psychology Number of Students Limited to 400 students Project
Description Humans have a unique ability to transcend the present and
mentally project themselves through time, a characteristic distinguishing us
from other animals (Stolarski et al., 2018, p. 593). This capacity to perceive
and conceive time has intrigued psychologists throughout the history of
scientific psychology, leading to research on time perspective and its
incorporation into psychological theories (e.g., William James, 1890; Piaget,
1946; Kurt Lewin, 1942; Bandura et al., 1997; cited from Stolarski et al.,
2018). For instance, Kurt Lewin’s famous life space model considered that
our perceptions of the past and the future (i.e., time frames) influence our
current behaviour. He defined time perspective (also known as time
orientation) as “the totality of the individual’s views of his psychological
future and psychological past existing at a given time” (Lewin, 1951, p. 75;
cited from Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014). Likewise, Bandura’s self-efficacy theory
(1997) proposes that efficacy beliefs are “grounded in past experiences,
current appraisals, and reflections on future options (cited from Zimbardo &
Boyd, 2014). One could argue that time perspective is essential in most
psychological theories beyond developmental models in psychology.
Zimbardo and colleagues proposed a broad conceptualization of time
perspective, namely “as a foundational process in both individual and
societal functioning” (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014, p. 18). More specifically, they
argue that time perspective is a cognitive process through which the
continual flows of personal and social experiences are assigned to time
frames (past, present, future), which gives order, coherence, and meaning to
those events. Zimbardo (2008) further argues that time perspective presents
a trait-like variable, distinguishing between individuals primarily focusing on
the past, present, or future time frame. Time perspective influences how we
encode, store, and recall experiences, shaping our expectations, goals,
contingencies, and imaginative scenarios. It also affects how we experience
the present, impacting factors such as life satisfaction (e.g., Shmotkin,
1991), resilience (e.g., Hatala et al., 2017), health and risk-taking (e.g., Boyd
& Zimbardo, 2006; Keough, 1999; Zimbardo et al., 1997), innovation (e.g.,
