Generalfpsych
Memory
● Repetitionf(asking)fincreasesfrecalling
● Distributedfpractice:fseveralfshortfstudyfperiodsfleadsftofbetterfrecallfthanfoneflongerfone
● Retrievalfpractice:fhelpsfyoufrememberfbyfquizzingfyourselffevenfwhenfit’sfunsuccessful
PhysiologyfandfPsychophysics
● physiologistfHermannfvonfHelmholtz
○ Neuralfimpulse:fAnfelectro-chemicalfsignalfthatfenablesfneuronsftofcommunicate
○ Exploredfhearingfandfvision
○ Hisfworkfindicatedfthatfourfsensesfcanfdeceivefusfandfarefnotfafmirrorfoffthefexternalfw
orld
● Psychophysics
○ →fStudyfoffthefrelationshipsfbetweenfphysicalfstimulifandfthefperceptionfoffthosefst
imuli.
○ StudiedfbyfErnstfWeberfandfGustavfFechner
HistoryfoffPsych
● Startedfwithfthefstudyfoffphysiologyfandfphilosophy
● Empiricalfresearch:fResearchfinfwhichfwefarefdoingfdatafcollectionforfobservingfthefw
orldftofgetfinfofaboutftheoryfwefhave
○ Empiricism:fThefbelieffthatfknowledgefcomesffromfexperience.
○ 150fyearsfold
■ Empiricalfquestionsfarefquestionsfthatfcanfbefansweredfwithfdatafandfg
atheredfevidence
■ Leadsftoftheory,fhypothesis,fandfdata
Empiricalfresearchf(experiments)
● Wundt
○ Methodsfareffamiliarftofpsychftoday
○ Firstfpsychflaboratory
○ Hisfgoalfwasftofsupportfthefideafoffconsciousness
● Wundt'sfmethods
○ Introspection:fexaminingfinternalfprocessesfasfobjectivelyfasfpossible
■ HowfamfIfableftofrecall?fWhatfdoesfitffeelflike?
○ Reactionftimes:ftestingfhowfquicklyfwefreact
■ changesfhowfquicklyfwefreactftofsomething
■ Howffastfdofwefreactftoflight,fsound,fetc
● STRUCTURALISM:fhowfourfmindsfmakefmeaningfandfformfafconsciousnessft
hroughfsmallfstep-by-stepfcognitivefprocesses
○ Contentsfoffthefmind!
● Voluntarismf(wundt)
○ Pplfshouldn’tfbefparticipatingfinfresearchfunlessftheyfknowfwhatfit’sfabout
○ CONSENT!fTHEYfMUSTfKNOWfWHATfTHEfSTUDYfISfABOUT
, ● Wunt’sfproblems
○ Wefdon’tfalwaysfhavefabilityftofbefobjectivefinternalfconflicts
○ Lotsfoffvariationffromfpersonftofperson
■ Hefassumedfeveryonefwasfsame
■ We’refoftenfwrongfaboutfourfthoughtsfandfmemories
○ Wefcan’tfintrospectfaccuratelyfaboutfdifferentftopics
■ Wefthinkfwefunderstand,fbutfwefarefoftenfwrong
● James
○ Functionalism:forganismsfadaptftofworldfthroughfevolution
■ Thoughtfyoufcouldn'tfbehavefbehaviorfinfsmallfpieces
■ Believedfinfstudyingfhumansfasfwhole
● Activitiesfoffthefmind!fWhatfthefmindfdoes!!
● JamesfMcKeenfCattel
○ Individualfdifferences:fWaysfinfwhichfpeoplefdifferfinftermsfofftheirfbehavior,fe
motion,fcognition,fandfdevelopment.
○ Believedfthatfmentalfabilitiesflikefintelligencefcouldfbefinheritedfandfcouldfbef
measuredfthroughfmentalftests
○ sayingfthatfaftraitfisfeitherfpresentforfabsentfdoesfnotfaccuratelyfreflectfafperson’sfuni
queness,fbecausefallfoffourfpersonalitiesfarefactuallyfmadefupfoffthefsameftraits;fwefdi
fferfonlyfinfthefdegreeftofwhichfeachftraitfisfexpressed.
○ identifiedf16ffactorsforfdimensionsfoffpersonality:fwarmth,freasoning,femotional
stability,fdominance,fliveliness,frule-
consciousness,fsocialfboldness,fsensitivity,fvigilance,fabstractedness,fprivateness,fappr
ehension,fopennessftofchange,
self-reliance,fperfectionism,fandftension
■ Andfmadefafassessmentffromfthesef16ffactors
Psychfhistory
● Freud,fSigmund
○ Theoryfthatfpeoplefcouldfhavefdisordersfthatfaren’tfphysicallyfcausedf(internalfli
kefdepression)
■ Youfdon’tfstubfyourftoefandfhavefdepressionfandffreudfwasffirstftofa
cknowledgefthis
○ Psychoanalyticftheory
■ Psychoanalysis:ftherapyfwherefpatientftalksfaboutfexperiencefandft
hemselves
■ Paysfattentionftofunconsciousfandfchildhoodfexperience
○ Believedfmanyfthingsfcamefdownftofsexualfurges
○ Neverfhadfdata!fSofmostfoffhisfthingsfarefunverified
■ Freudfwasfnotfanfempirical!
○ Dreamfanalysis
■ byfexaminationsfofftheffirstfwordsfthatfcameftofpeople’sfminds,fandfthroughfse
eminglyfinnocentfslipsfofftheftongue.
○
,Gestaltfpsychologist
● studyingfthefwholefoffanyfexperiencefwasfricherfthanfstudyingfindividualfaspectsfoffthatfex
perience.
○ Thefsayingf―thefwholefisfgreaterfthanfthefsumfoffitsfparts‖fisfafGestaltfperspective
● proposedfthatfthefmindfoftenfprocessesfinformationfsimultaneouslyfratherfthanfafterwards.
○ Forfinstance,fwhenfyouflookfatfafphotograph,fyoufseefafwholefimage,fnotfjustfafco
llectionfoffpixelsfoffcolor
● Thingsfarefnotfnecessarilyfperceivedfinfthefsamefwayfforfanfindividualftofindividual
● Ourfperceptionfoffthefworldfisfnotfuniversal
● Considersfhumanfasfwholefnotfseparatefparts
● Ledftofthefrisefoffcognitivefpsychology
Behaviorism
● Behaviorism:fThefstudyfoffbehavior.
● Pavlov,fWatson,fSkinner
○ Pavlov’sfstudyfprovidedfsupportfforfthefnotionfthatflearningfandfbehaviorfwerefcontro
lledfbyfeventsfinfthefenvironmentfandfcouldfbefexplainedfwithfnofreferenceftofmindforf
consciousness
■ Pavlov’sfsalivationfinfdogsfwasflearned
○ Skinnerfandfpositiveforfnegativefreinforcement
■ SkinnerfBox:fchamberfthatfisolatesfthefsubjectffromfthefexternalfenvironmentfa
ndfhasfafbehaviorfindicatorfsuchfasfafleverforfafbutton.fWhenfthefanimalfpushesf
thefbuttonforflever,fthefboxfisfableftofdeliverfafpositivefreinforcementfoffthefbeh
aviorf(suchfasffood)forfafpunishmentf(suchfasfafnoise).
○
● Concernedfonlyfwithfexternallyfobservablefbehavior
● Conditioning:fassociationfoffstimulusfwithfresponsefthroughflearning
● Nofintrospectionfbcfdidn’tfthinkfitfwasfableftofbefstudied
● FredericfC.fBartlett
○ Constructivefmind:f peoplefuseftheirfpastfexperiencesftofconstructfframeworksfinfw
hichftofunderstandfnewfexperiences.
● RogerfBrown
○ Researchfonflanguagefandfmemory
■ Flashbulbfmemory:fAfhighlyfdetailedfandfvividfmemoryfoffanfemotionallyfsi
gnificantfevent
■ Tip-of-the-
tonguefphenomenon:fThefinabilityftofpullfafwordffromfmemoryfevenfthoughf
therefisfthefsensationfthatfthatfwordfisfavailable.
Humanism
● MaslowfandfRogers
● Maslow’sfhierarchyfoffneeds
● Emphasisfthatfallfhumansfhavefinnatefpotentialfforfgood
○ Iffneedsfarefmet,fwefarefableftofpracticefgoodness
○ Lowerflevelsfmet,fhigherflevelsfarefmotivation
, ● Humanisticftherapyf=fClientfcenteredftherapy
○ Patientsftakesfleadfinftherapyftofworkfthroughftheirfownfissues
○ Carlfrogers
○ Unconditionalfpositivefregard
○ Alwaysfreactfpositively
○ therapistfacceptsftheirfclientfforfwhoftheyfare,fnofmatterfwhatftheyfmightfsay.
○ Veryfcommonftherapyftoday
Cognitivefrevolution
● Pushedfpsychologyftofsayfthatftherefareflotfoffquestionsfwefcan’tfanswerfiffwefonlyffocusfon
fbehavior
● NoamfChomsky
○ Critiquefchildflearningflanguage
○ Saidfbehaviorfprinciplesfcan’tfaccountfforfthefwayfchildrenflearnffirstforfsecondfla
nguagefatfschoolforfhomeforfsomewherefelse
● Broughtftogetherfpplfwhofthoughtfinfdifferentfwaysftofunderstandfmind
○ Linguistics,fneuroscientist,fpsych,fcomputerfscientistf(e.g)
Women?fPOC?fPsychftoday?
● Feministfpsychologyf(20thfcentury)
○ Saidfwhitefmalefperspectivefonfstudyingfhumansfwasfveryfwhiteflimited
○ MargaretfFloyfWashburnfwasftheffirstfwomanfawardedfthefdoctoralfdegreefinfp
sychology.
○ MaryfWhitonfCalkinsfcompletedfallfrequirementsftowardfthefPhDfinfpsychology,fb
utfHarvardfUniversityfrefusedftofawardfherfthatfdegreefbecausefshefwasfafwoman.
○ MaryfCoverfJones,fconductedfafstudyfshefconsideredftofbefafsequelftofJohnfB.
Watson’sfstudyfoffLittlefAlbert
● Multiculturalfandfcross-culturalfpsych
Memory
● Repetitionf(asking)fincreasesfrecalling
● Distributedfpractice:fseveralfshortfstudyfperiodsfleadsftofbetterfrecallfthanfoneflongerfone
● Retrievalfpractice:fhelpsfyoufrememberfbyfquizzingfyourselffevenfwhenfit’sfunsuccessful
PhysiologyfandfPsychophysics
● physiologistfHermannfvonfHelmholtz
○ Neuralfimpulse:fAnfelectro-chemicalfsignalfthatfenablesfneuronsftofcommunicate
○ Exploredfhearingfandfvision
○ Hisfworkfindicatedfthatfourfsensesfcanfdeceivefusfandfarefnotfafmirrorfoffthefexternalfw
orld
● Psychophysics
○ →fStudyfoffthefrelationshipsfbetweenfphysicalfstimulifandfthefperceptionfoffthosefst
imuli.
○ StudiedfbyfErnstfWeberfandfGustavfFechner
HistoryfoffPsych
● Startedfwithfthefstudyfoffphysiologyfandfphilosophy
● Empiricalfresearch:fResearchfinfwhichfwefarefdoingfdatafcollectionforfobservingfthefw
orldftofgetfinfofaboutftheoryfwefhave
○ Empiricism:fThefbelieffthatfknowledgefcomesffromfexperience.
○ 150fyearsfold
■ Empiricalfquestionsfarefquestionsfthatfcanfbefansweredfwithfdatafandfg
atheredfevidence
■ Leadsftoftheory,fhypothesis,fandfdata
Empiricalfresearchf(experiments)
● Wundt
○ Methodsfareffamiliarftofpsychftoday
○ Firstfpsychflaboratory
○ Hisfgoalfwasftofsupportfthefideafoffconsciousness
● Wundt'sfmethods
○ Introspection:fexaminingfinternalfprocessesfasfobjectivelyfasfpossible
■ HowfamfIfableftofrecall?fWhatfdoesfitffeelflike?
○ Reactionftimes:ftestingfhowfquicklyfwefreact
■ changesfhowfquicklyfwefreactftofsomething
■ Howffastfdofwefreactftoflight,fsound,fetc
● STRUCTURALISM:fhowfourfmindsfmakefmeaningfandfformfafconsciousnessft
hroughfsmallfstep-by-stepfcognitivefprocesses
○ Contentsfoffthefmind!
● Voluntarismf(wundt)
○ Pplfshouldn’tfbefparticipatingfinfresearchfunlessftheyfknowfwhatfit’sfabout
○ CONSENT!fTHEYfMUSTfKNOWfWHATfTHEfSTUDYfISfABOUT
, ● Wunt’sfproblems
○ Wefdon’tfalwaysfhavefabilityftofbefobjectivefinternalfconflicts
○ Lotsfoffvariationffromfpersonftofperson
■ Hefassumedfeveryonefwasfsame
■ We’refoftenfwrongfaboutfourfthoughtsfandfmemories
○ Wefcan’tfintrospectfaccuratelyfaboutfdifferentftopics
■ Wefthinkfwefunderstand,fbutfwefarefoftenfwrong
● James
○ Functionalism:forganismsfadaptftofworldfthroughfevolution
■ Thoughtfyoufcouldn'tfbehavefbehaviorfinfsmallfpieces
■ Believedfinfstudyingfhumansfasfwhole
● Activitiesfoffthefmind!fWhatfthefmindfdoes!!
● JamesfMcKeenfCattel
○ Individualfdifferences:fWaysfinfwhichfpeoplefdifferfinftermsfofftheirfbehavior,fe
motion,fcognition,fandfdevelopment.
○ Believedfthatfmentalfabilitiesflikefintelligencefcouldfbefinheritedfandfcouldfbef
measuredfthroughfmentalftests
○ sayingfthatfaftraitfisfeitherfpresentforfabsentfdoesfnotfaccuratelyfreflectfafperson’sfuni
queness,fbecausefallfoffourfpersonalitiesfarefactuallyfmadefupfoffthefsameftraits;fwefdi
fferfonlyfinfthefdegreeftofwhichfeachftraitfisfexpressed.
○ identifiedf16ffactorsforfdimensionsfoffpersonality:fwarmth,freasoning,femotional
stability,fdominance,fliveliness,frule-
consciousness,fsocialfboldness,fsensitivity,fvigilance,fabstractedness,fprivateness,fappr
ehension,fopennessftofchange,
self-reliance,fperfectionism,fandftension
■ Andfmadefafassessmentffromfthesef16ffactors
Psychfhistory
● Freud,fSigmund
○ Theoryfthatfpeoplefcouldfhavefdisordersfthatfaren’tfphysicallyfcausedf(internalfli
kefdepression)
■ Youfdon’tfstubfyourftoefandfhavefdepressionfandffreudfwasffirstftofa
cknowledgefthis
○ Psychoanalyticftheory
■ Psychoanalysis:ftherapyfwherefpatientftalksfaboutfexperiencefandft
hemselves
■ Paysfattentionftofunconsciousfandfchildhoodfexperience
○ Believedfmanyfthingsfcamefdownftofsexualfurges
○ Neverfhadfdata!fSofmostfoffhisfthingsfarefunverified
■ Freudfwasfnotfanfempirical!
○ Dreamfanalysis
■ byfexaminationsfofftheffirstfwordsfthatfcameftofpeople’sfminds,fandfthroughfse
eminglyfinnocentfslipsfofftheftongue.
○
,Gestaltfpsychologist
● studyingfthefwholefoffanyfexperiencefwasfricherfthanfstudyingfindividualfaspectsfoffthatfex
perience.
○ Thefsayingf―thefwholefisfgreaterfthanfthefsumfoffitsfparts‖fisfafGestaltfperspective
● proposedfthatfthefmindfoftenfprocessesfinformationfsimultaneouslyfratherfthanfafterwards.
○ Forfinstance,fwhenfyouflookfatfafphotograph,fyoufseefafwholefimage,fnotfjustfafco
llectionfoffpixelsfoffcolor
● Thingsfarefnotfnecessarilyfperceivedfinfthefsamefwayfforfanfindividualftofindividual
● Ourfperceptionfoffthefworldfisfnotfuniversal
● Considersfhumanfasfwholefnotfseparatefparts
● Ledftofthefrisefoffcognitivefpsychology
Behaviorism
● Behaviorism:fThefstudyfoffbehavior.
● Pavlov,fWatson,fSkinner
○ Pavlov’sfstudyfprovidedfsupportfforfthefnotionfthatflearningfandfbehaviorfwerefcontro
lledfbyfeventsfinfthefenvironmentfandfcouldfbefexplainedfwithfnofreferenceftofmindforf
consciousness
■ Pavlov’sfsalivationfinfdogsfwasflearned
○ Skinnerfandfpositiveforfnegativefreinforcement
■ SkinnerfBox:fchamberfthatfisolatesfthefsubjectffromfthefexternalfenvironmentfa
ndfhasfafbehaviorfindicatorfsuchfasfafleverforfafbutton.fWhenfthefanimalfpushesf
thefbuttonforflever,fthefboxfisfableftofdeliverfafpositivefreinforcementfoffthefbeh
aviorf(suchfasffood)forfafpunishmentf(suchfasfafnoise).
○
● Concernedfonlyfwithfexternallyfobservablefbehavior
● Conditioning:fassociationfoffstimulusfwithfresponsefthroughflearning
● Nofintrospectionfbcfdidn’tfthinkfitfwasfableftofbefstudied
● FredericfC.fBartlett
○ Constructivefmind:f peoplefuseftheirfpastfexperiencesftofconstructfframeworksfinfw
hichftofunderstandfnewfexperiences.
● RogerfBrown
○ Researchfonflanguagefandfmemory
■ Flashbulbfmemory:fAfhighlyfdetailedfandfvividfmemoryfoffanfemotionallyfsi
gnificantfevent
■ Tip-of-the-
tonguefphenomenon:fThefinabilityftofpullfafwordffromfmemoryfevenfthoughf
therefisfthefsensationfthatfthatfwordfisfavailable.
Humanism
● MaslowfandfRogers
● Maslow’sfhierarchyfoffneeds
● Emphasisfthatfallfhumansfhavefinnatefpotentialfforfgood
○ Iffneedsfarefmet,fwefarefableftofpracticefgoodness
○ Lowerflevelsfmet,fhigherflevelsfarefmotivation
, ● Humanisticftherapyf=fClientfcenteredftherapy
○ Patientsftakesfleadfinftherapyftofworkfthroughftheirfownfissues
○ Carlfrogers
○ Unconditionalfpositivefregard
○ Alwaysfreactfpositively
○ therapistfacceptsftheirfclientfforfwhoftheyfare,fnofmatterfwhatftheyfmightfsay.
○ Veryfcommonftherapyftoday
Cognitivefrevolution
● Pushedfpsychologyftofsayfthatftherefareflotfoffquestionsfwefcan’tfanswerfiffwefonlyffocusfon
fbehavior
● NoamfChomsky
○ Critiquefchildflearningflanguage
○ Saidfbehaviorfprinciplesfcan’tfaccountfforfthefwayfchildrenflearnffirstforfsecondfla
nguagefatfschoolforfhomeforfsomewherefelse
● Broughtftogetherfpplfwhofthoughtfinfdifferentfwaysftofunderstandfmind
○ Linguistics,fneuroscientist,fpsych,fcomputerfscientistf(e.g)
Women?fPOC?fPsychftoday?
● Feministfpsychologyf(20thfcentury)
○ Saidfwhitefmalefperspectivefonfstudyingfhumansfwasfveryfwhiteflimited
○ MargaretfFloyfWashburnfwasftheffirstfwomanfawardedfthefdoctoralfdegreefinfp
sychology.
○ MaryfWhitonfCalkinsfcompletedfallfrequirementsftowardfthefPhDfinfpsychology,fb
utfHarvardfUniversityfrefusedftofawardfherfthatfdegreefbecausefshefwasfafwoman.
○ MaryfCoverfJones,fconductedfafstudyfshefconsideredftofbefafsequelftofJohnfB.
Watson’sfstudyfoffLittlefAlbert
● Multiculturalfandfcross-culturalfpsych
