Identify the two components of the peripheral nervous system, and explain two differences
in their organisation and/or functions (4 AO1-2 AO3-2)
One component of the peripheral nervous system is that it is split into the autonomic nervous
system and somatic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is in control of internal organs
and glands, which is an involuntary process. On the other hand, the somatic nervous system in a
voluntary choice, controlling our skeletal muscles, such as walking. Another component of the
peripheral nervous system is that the autonomic nervous system once again splits, this time into
sympathetic and parasympathetic. The sympathetic nervous system is in charge of fight or flight
processes, getting the body prepared in variations ways, one being slowing digestion. On the other
hand, the parasympathetic nervous system, also called as the ‘rest and digest’ system is in charge of
calming the body, bringing it back to a state of equilibrium. (The other nervous system is the central
nervous system which is split into two: the brain and spinal cord.)
Outline the structures and processes involved in synaptic transmission (6 – AO1-6)
Initially an action potential is fired, which is an electrical impulse. Once it reaches a neuron, it travels
down the axon, to the presynapse. Once at the presynapse, the action potential needs to change
into a chemical messenger, known as a neurotransmitter. This is because an action potential can’t
make the jump between synapses. Vesicles, found at the presynapse, are sack like bags which hold
these neurotransmitters, diffusing them across the synapse. Once these neurotransmitters reach the
post-synpase, they bind to specialised receptors which sit on the surface of the post-synapse. Once
binded to their respective receptors, the process continues. Any neurotransmitter that does not bind
goes through a process of reuptake, or they diffuse out. Reuptake is like a recycling method for
neurotransmitters as they diffuse across the synapse and back into their vesicles, for the process to
repeat. Whether synaptic transmission occurs is based on the principle of excitation and inhibition.
All neurotransmitters are either exitory or inhibitory, for example, dopamine is exitory, while GABBA
is inhibitory. If there are more inhibitory neurotransmitters, it makes the next action potential less
likely to fire. This is known as the summation of these neurotransmitters.
Identify two glands that form part of the endocrine system and outline their functions (4 –
AO1-4)
One gland in the endocrine system is the pineal gland. This gland's role is to regulate the release of
melatonin, which is a crucial hormone for the sleep/wake cycle, often linked to feelings of tiredness.
On the other hand, the adrenal gland releases adrenaline, which is a hormone linked to fight or
flight. The role of this hormone is to prepare the body for fight or flight when a dangerous stimulus
appears, also referred to as an acute stress.
Thyroid gland - produces thyroxine, which is crucial for our metabolism. Ovaries - produces
oestrogen, which is crucial for a women's menstrual cycle.
Outline the flight or fight response (3 – AO1-3)
When we experience an acute stress, which is determined based on our previous schemes (for
example, we are taught that wild animals are dangerous, so our scheme states we should fear them
if we encounter them), the hypothalamus is altered. This then activates the SAM pathway, which is a
part of the sympathetic nervous. As a result, our adrenal medulla is altered, in turn, preparing the
adrenal gland to secrete adrenaline. Once this occurs, many changes occur to our body. For
example, pupil dilation, blood moving away from the skin, digestion slows, and heart rate increases.
These are all survival techniques which protect us from harm. These send a person into fight or
flight.
, Once the dangerous stimuli is gone, our parasympathetic nervous system, known as the ‘rest and
digest’ system, begins to calm our body, bringing it back to a state of equilibrium. Some of the
effects include lowering heart rate and speeding up digestion.
Robert suffered a stroke at the age of 55. After the stroke he was paralysed down his right
side, though he could move his left arm and leg easily. Robert could clearly understand what
was said to him, but was unable to produce any speech. Discuss how knowledge of
hemispheric lateralization and language centres in the brain has helped our understanding
of cases such as Roberts. (16 – AO1-6 AO2-4 AO3-6)
Hemisphereic lateralisation is the theory that some brain functions are only found in one
hemisphere. A key contributor to hemispheric lateralisation is that our brain is contralateral,
meaning the left hemisphere controls the right side of our body and the right hemisphere controls
the left side of our body. One of the most well-known functions of the left hemisphere is that it is
linked to language processing and analytical concepts like maths. This is because our language
centres, the brocas area and wernickes area, are only found on the left hemisphere. The Broca’s area
is in charge of the production of speech, while the Wernicke’s area is in charge of understanding
spoken language. Damage to the Broca’s area can lead to Broca’s aphasia, which disrupts a person’s
ability to produce speech; this does not mean they cannot produce speech at all, however. Similarly,
damage to Wernickes area, kown as Wernickes aphasia, can lead to problems understanding spoken
language. On the other hand, the right hemisphere is in charge of spatial relationships and
recognition. As a result, it is more dominant in functions such as subjectivity, emotions, creativity,
and our imagination.
In Roberts case, it is stated he is parallyzed on his right side, meaning that with the knowledge of the
brain being contralateral, we can infer the stroke caused damage to his left hemisphere. As a result
of this, perhaps his Brocas area was damaged, which is possible due to it appearing in only the left
hemisphere. This also makes sense due to the scenario stating Robert could understand, but not
produce any speech, suggesting he suffers from Broca’s aphasia. This does also mean his Wernickes
area is intact, however. Moreover, because it is stated he could still move his left arm and leg easily,
it further suggests the damage is only evident in the left hemisphere.
+ Because hemispheric lateralisation can be objectively observed through techniques like fMRI’s, we
can infer this theory is scientific and can therefore be falsifiable. As a result, this can have practical
applications because if psychology is reviewed as a science, it may mean funding for the field is
increased, helping the advancement of psychology.
+/- Research into split-brain has proven that both hemispheres serve different functions, and even
case studies like Robert display this. However, you can also argue pt’s in split-brain had their corpus
collopus severed, which is incredibly rare. This means the results can’t be generlised to the wider
population.
-/+ This theory can be argued as being incredibly biologically reductionist, which is an issue as it is
simplifying such complex processes, perhaps too much. Evident in the fact that there is no evidence
for 100% left hemisphere dominance for language, as 4% of right-handers are not left hemisphere
dominant for language. From this we can infer there are other factors which are in effect. However,
this can also be a positive as science favours parsimony - which is the simplest approach. This is
because more of the population can understand, which may mean the practical applications are
more effective.
in their organisation and/or functions (4 AO1-2 AO3-2)
One component of the peripheral nervous system is that it is split into the autonomic nervous
system and somatic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is in control of internal organs
and glands, which is an involuntary process. On the other hand, the somatic nervous system in a
voluntary choice, controlling our skeletal muscles, such as walking. Another component of the
peripheral nervous system is that the autonomic nervous system once again splits, this time into
sympathetic and parasympathetic. The sympathetic nervous system is in charge of fight or flight
processes, getting the body prepared in variations ways, one being slowing digestion. On the other
hand, the parasympathetic nervous system, also called as the ‘rest and digest’ system is in charge of
calming the body, bringing it back to a state of equilibrium. (The other nervous system is the central
nervous system which is split into two: the brain and spinal cord.)
Outline the structures and processes involved in synaptic transmission (6 – AO1-6)
Initially an action potential is fired, which is an electrical impulse. Once it reaches a neuron, it travels
down the axon, to the presynapse. Once at the presynapse, the action potential needs to change
into a chemical messenger, known as a neurotransmitter. This is because an action potential can’t
make the jump between synapses. Vesicles, found at the presynapse, are sack like bags which hold
these neurotransmitters, diffusing them across the synapse. Once these neurotransmitters reach the
post-synpase, they bind to specialised receptors which sit on the surface of the post-synapse. Once
binded to their respective receptors, the process continues. Any neurotransmitter that does not bind
goes through a process of reuptake, or they diffuse out. Reuptake is like a recycling method for
neurotransmitters as they diffuse across the synapse and back into their vesicles, for the process to
repeat. Whether synaptic transmission occurs is based on the principle of excitation and inhibition.
All neurotransmitters are either exitory or inhibitory, for example, dopamine is exitory, while GABBA
is inhibitory. If there are more inhibitory neurotransmitters, it makes the next action potential less
likely to fire. This is known as the summation of these neurotransmitters.
Identify two glands that form part of the endocrine system and outline their functions (4 –
AO1-4)
One gland in the endocrine system is the pineal gland. This gland's role is to regulate the release of
melatonin, which is a crucial hormone for the sleep/wake cycle, often linked to feelings of tiredness.
On the other hand, the adrenal gland releases adrenaline, which is a hormone linked to fight or
flight. The role of this hormone is to prepare the body for fight or flight when a dangerous stimulus
appears, also referred to as an acute stress.
Thyroid gland - produces thyroxine, which is crucial for our metabolism. Ovaries - produces
oestrogen, which is crucial for a women's menstrual cycle.
Outline the flight or fight response (3 – AO1-3)
When we experience an acute stress, which is determined based on our previous schemes (for
example, we are taught that wild animals are dangerous, so our scheme states we should fear them
if we encounter them), the hypothalamus is altered. This then activates the SAM pathway, which is a
part of the sympathetic nervous. As a result, our adrenal medulla is altered, in turn, preparing the
adrenal gland to secrete adrenaline. Once this occurs, many changes occur to our body. For
example, pupil dilation, blood moving away from the skin, digestion slows, and heart rate increases.
These are all survival techniques which protect us from harm. These send a person into fight or
flight.
, Once the dangerous stimuli is gone, our parasympathetic nervous system, known as the ‘rest and
digest’ system, begins to calm our body, bringing it back to a state of equilibrium. Some of the
effects include lowering heart rate and speeding up digestion.
Robert suffered a stroke at the age of 55. After the stroke he was paralysed down his right
side, though he could move his left arm and leg easily. Robert could clearly understand what
was said to him, but was unable to produce any speech. Discuss how knowledge of
hemispheric lateralization and language centres in the brain has helped our understanding
of cases such as Roberts. (16 – AO1-6 AO2-4 AO3-6)
Hemisphereic lateralisation is the theory that some brain functions are only found in one
hemisphere. A key contributor to hemispheric lateralisation is that our brain is contralateral,
meaning the left hemisphere controls the right side of our body and the right hemisphere controls
the left side of our body. One of the most well-known functions of the left hemisphere is that it is
linked to language processing and analytical concepts like maths. This is because our language
centres, the brocas area and wernickes area, are only found on the left hemisphere. The Broca’s area
is in charge of the production of speech, while the Wernicke’s area is in charge of understanding
spoken language. Damage to the Broca’s area can lead to Broca’s aphasia, which disrupts a person’s
ability to produce speech; this does not mean they cannot produce speech at all, however. Similarly,
damage to Wernickes area, kown as Wernickes aphasia, can lead to problems understanding spoken
language. On the other hand, the right hemisphere is in charge of spatial relationships and
recognition. As a result, it is more dominant in functions such as subjectivity, emotions, creativity,
and our imagination.
In Roberts case, it is stated he is parallyzed on his right side, meaning that with the knowledge of the
brain being contralateral, we can infer the stroke caused damage to his left hemisphere. As a result
of this, perhaps his Brocas area was damaged, which is possible due to it appearing in only the left
hemisphere. This also makes sense due to the scenario stating Robert could understand, but not
produce any speech, suggesting he suffers from Broca’s aphasia. This does also mean his Wernickes
area is intact, however. Moreover, because it is stated he could still move his left arm and leg easily,
it further suggests the damage is only evident in the left hemisphere.
+ Because hemispheric lateralisation can be objectively observed through techniques like fMRI’s, we
can infer this theory is scientific and can therefore be falsifiable. As a result, this can have practical
applications because if psychology is reviewed as a science, it may mean funding for the field is
increased, helping the advancement of psychology.
+/- Research into split-brain has proven that both hemispheres serve different functions, and even
case studies like Robert display this. However, you can also argue pt’s in split-brain had their corpus
collopus severed, which is incredibly rare. This means the results can’t be generlised to the wider
population.
-/+ This theory can be argued as being incredibly biologically reductionist, which is an issue as it is
simplifying such complex processes, perhaps too much. Evident in the fact that there is no evidence
for 100% left hemisphere dominance for language, as 4% of right-handers are not left hemisphere
dominant for language. From this we can infer there are other factors which are in effect. However,
this can also be a positive as science favours parsimony - which is the simplest approach. This is
because more of the population can understand, which may mean the practical applications are
more effective.
