Summary M1.6 Pharmacology Made Easy The Endocrine system; Complete updated solution guide;2025.

M1.6 Pharmacology Made Easy The Endocrine system Overview Welcome to The Endocrine System module. In this module, you will first learn about medications that treat disorders that relate to the induction system such as diabetes mellitus (DM), thyroid disorders, and hypothalamic disorders. You will review the anatomy and physiology of the endocrine system. Learning Objectives  Describe the structures and functions of the endocrine system.  Identify medications and their expected actions used to treat a variety of disorders affecting the endocrine system.  Explain the adverse reactions, contraindications, and interactions associated with medications used to treat a variety of endocrine disorders.  Describe instructions the nurse should provide to clients receiving medications to treat a variety of endocrine disorders.  Apply the nursing process related to medication therapy used to treat endocrine disorders. The Endocrine System The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones into the circulatory system, which carries them to target tissues in various parts of the body. These target tissues contain receptor sites for specific hormones, allowing the hormone to exert its effects. The glands that make up the endocrine system include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, islet cells of the pancreas, adrenal glands, as well as the testes and ovaries.M1.6 Pharmacology Made Easy The Endocrine system Hypothalamus/Pituitary Gland The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together in regulating certain hormones. The hypothalamus connects to the pituitary gland by a network of nerves and blood vessels. It secretes hormones that either stimulate or inhibit the production of other hormones, many of which are produced by the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland has an anterior and posterior lobe. It controls growth and metabolism in the body and secretes hormones that travel to target tissues. Secretion of most of the hormones of the pituitary gland occurs secondary to secretion of stimulating hormones by the hypothalamus. An interesting thing about endocrine hormones is the feedback loop that the release of hormones creates. For example, when the blood level of a particular hormone is low, the hypothalamus is stimulated to produce a hormone-stimulating hormone that stimulates the pituitary to release the hormone into the bloodstream. With the release of the hormone, the increase in blood levels inhibits the hypothalamus and pituitary gland from releasing additional hormones.M1.6 Pharmacology Made Easy The Endocrine system Hormones of the Hypothalamus and Anterior and Posterior Pituitary Hypothalamus Anterior Pituitary Posterior Pituitary Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) → Growth hormone (GH) Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) → Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) → Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) → Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH); Luteinizing hormone (LH) Antidiuretic hormone – produced in hypothalamus and transported to posterior pituitary via axons (ADH) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Oxytocin – produced in hypothalamus and transported to posterior pituitary via axons Oxytocin Thyroid Gland The thyroid gland consists of two joined lobes over the lower part of the trachea. It is stimulated by the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. The hypothalamus secretes a thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH stimulates the follicular cells of the thyroid to produce thyroxine, commonly abbreviated T4, and triiodothyronine, commonly abbreviated T3. Iodine is needed for the production of T3 and T4.M1.6 Pharmacology Made Easy The Endocrine system Pancreas The pancreas produces enzymes that help with digestion and hormones that balance blood glucose. The beta cells of the islets of Langerhans produce insulin and amylin. Insulin is then released in response to a rise in the serum glucose level. Insulin promotes the uptake of glucose into cells and the metabolism of glucose by cells in the body as well as the uptake of amino acids by muscle tissue, converts glucose to stored glucose, called glycogen, and helps convert glucose to triglycerides. The beta cells of islets of the pancreas release amylin, a peptide hormone that balances the effects of insulin. It does this by slowing gastric emptying, inhibiting the secretion of glucagon, and enhancing the feeling of satiety, which is the feeling of fullness one gets during or after a meal. The alpha cells of islets of the pancreas also produce glucagon, which helps balance the effect of insulin. Glucagon increases low blood glucose levels by promoting glycogenolysis, which is the breaking down of glycogen stored in the liver to glucose. Glucagon also promotes gluconeogenesis, which is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate compounds. The delta cells of the islets of the pancreas produce somatostatin, a hormone that inhibits other hormones, specifically growth hormone, insulin, glucagon, and thyroid-stimulating hormone. The epsilon cells of the islets of the pancreas produce ghrelin, which inhibits insulin secretion.M1.6 Pharmacology Made Easy The Endocrine system Diabetes Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which an inadequate amount of insulin is available for cells to metabolize carbohydrates. It is characterized by blood glucose levels that are elevated and can cause severe damage to the circulatory system in various parts of the body. When the body cannot balance the amount of insulin produced with the amount of carbohydrates ingested, an elevation in blood glucose occurs. Diabetes mellitus exists in two forms: type 1 and type 2. Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) occurs because the beta cells of the pancreas cease to produce insulin, resulting in insulin deficiency. It most commonly begins before the age of 30 and requires insulin for its management. Since it is a life-long disorder, clients who have type 1 diabetes mellitus will need to take insulin throughout their lifetime. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) occurs secondary to inadequate secretion of insulin for carbohydrates that are consumed. In addition, cells in the muscles, liver, and fatty tissue cannot effectively use the insulin, causing decreased insulin sensitivity or insulin resistance. Insulin resistance by muscle and fatty tissues occurs when insulin receptors are no longer stimulated by insulin, allowing the glucose in the blood to remain in the blood. DM causes hyperglycemia, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, increasedM1.6 Pharmacology Made Easy The Endocrine system fat deposits around the torso, and elevated inflammation. Cells in the circulatory system are adversely affected by high blood glucose levels, resulting in chronic small and large vessel cardiovascular and neurologic issues such as hyperlipidemia, hypertension, heart disease, kidney disease, peripheral vascular disease, myocardial infarctions, cerebrovascular accidents, retinopathy, and neuropathy. Acute complications of DM are hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Insulin resistance can progress to T2DM. The onset of this type of diabetes can occur at any age but is most commonly diagnosed during adulthood and in clients who are overweight or obese. These clients frequently have a family history of T2DM. Early management of T2DM can often be done with a change in diet and exercise. As the disease progresses, oral hypoglycemics may be added to the therapeutic regimen to control a client’s blood glucose level. Management may involve more than one type of hypoglycemic because they work in different ways, so a combination approach is often more effective in keeping the blood glucose within the recommended range. Some clients in whom the disease continues to progress may eventually need to take insulin to adequately manage their blood glucose levels. The transient form of diabetes mellitus that occurs during pregnancy is called gestational diabetes. This is usually managed with diet and insulin until the baby is born, at which time the diabetes usually spontaneously resolves. CONTINUED..................................