1
NR567 Final Exam Study Guide latest update 2025
WITH ALL CASE STUDIES AND A STUDY GUIDE
LATEST LAB FINDINGS ALREADY GRADED A+
Therapeutic dosing and monitoring of warfarin (Coumadin)
Treatment with warfarin should be initiated with standard doses of 5–10 mg. The initial adjustment of the prothrombin time takes about 1 week,
which usually results in a maintenance dosage of 5–7 mg/d. The prothrombin time (PT) should be increased to a level representing a reduction of
prothrombin activity to 25% of normal and maintained there for long-term therapy. When the activity is less than 20%, the warfarin dosage should
be reduced or omitted until the activity rises above 20%. Inherited polymorphisms
in 2CYP2C9 and VKORC1 have significant effects on warfarin dosing; however, algorithms incorporating genomic information to predict initial
warfarin dosing were no better than standard clinical algorithms in two of three large randomized trials examining this issue. The recommended
INR for prophylaxis and treatment of thrombotic disease is 2–3. Patients with some types of artificial heart valves (eg, tilting disk) or other medical
conditions increasing thrombotic risk have a recommended range of 2.5–3.5.
Types of anticoagulants- mechanisms of action and indications for use
• Vitamin K antagonists.
• Direct Oral Anticoagulants (DOACs)
• Low molecular weight heparins (LMWH)
What is the mechanism of action for anticoagulants?
• Anticoagulants achieve their effect by suppressing the synthesis or function of various clotting factors that are normally present in the
blood. Such drugs are often used to prevent the formation of blood clots (thrombi) in the veins or arteries or the enlargement of a clot
that is circulating in the bloodstream.
What are the indications for anticoagulants?
• Anticoagulation is an important component of the management strategy for several common medical conditions. It is indicated for the
prevention of recurrent thrombosis in patients with venous thromboembolism (VTE), which includes deep venous thrombosis and
pulmonary embolism, and ischemic stroke.
Understand Starling’s law
The Frank-Starling Law states that the stroke volume of the left ventricle will increase as the left ventricular volume increases due to the myocyte
stretch causing a more forceful systolic contraction. This assumes that other factors remain constant.
The Frank–Starling law of the eart (also known as h Starling's law and the Frank–Starling mechanism) represents the relationship between
stroke volume and end e.[1] T diastolic volum he law states that the stroke volume of the heart increases in
response to an increase in the volume of blood in the ventricles, before contraction (the end diastolic volume), when all
other factors remain constant. [1] As a larger volume of blood flows into the ventricle, the blood stretches the cardiac
muscle fibers, leading to an increase in the force of contraction. The Frank-Starling mechanism allows the
,2
cardiac output to be synchronized with the venous return, arterial blood supply and humoral length,[2] without depending upon external regulation
to make alterations. The physiological importance of the mechanism lies mainly in maintaining left and right ventricular output equality.
Medications which increase and decrease preload and afterload
For heart failure, ACE inhibitors and ARBs reduce workload on the myocardium by reducing both preload and afterload.
Preload: When some measure of left ventricular performance such as stroke volume or stroke work is plotted as a function of left ventricular filling
pressure or end-diastolic fiber length, the resulting curve is termed the left ventricular function curve (Figure 13–4). The ascending limb (<15 mm
Hg filling pressure) represents the classic Frank-Starling relation described in physiology texts. Beyond approximately 15 mm Hg, there is a plateau
of performance. Preloads greater than 20–25 mm Hg result in pulmonary congestion. As noted above, preload is usually increased in heart failure
because of increased blood volume and venous tone. Because the function curve of the failing heart is lower, the plateau is reached at much lower
values of stroke work or output. Increased fiber length or filling pressure increases oxygen demand in the myocardium, as described in Chapter 12.
Reduction of high filling pressure is the goal of salt restriction and diuretic therapy in heart failure. Venodilator drugs (eg, nitroglycerin) also reduce
preload by redistributing blood away from the chest into peripheral veins.
Afterload: Afterload is the resistance against which the heart must pump blood and is represented by aortic impedance and systemic vascular
resistance. As noted in Figure 13–2, as cardiac output falls in chronic failure, a reflex increase in systemic vascular resistance occurs, mediated in
part by increased sympathetic outflow and circulating catecholamines and in part by activation of the reninangiotensin system. Endothelin, a
potent vasoconstrictor peptide, is also involved. This sets the stage for the use of drugs that reduce arteriolar tone in heart failure.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Antidote therapies for benzodiazepines
Flumazenil is approved for use in reversing the CNS depressant effects of benzodiazepine overdose and to hasten recovery following use of these
drugs in anesthetic and diagnostic procedures. Although the drug reverses the sedative effects of benzodiazepines, antagonism of
benzodiazepineinduced respiratory depression is less predictable. When given intravenously, flumazenil acts rapidly but has a short half-life (0.7–
1.3 hours) due to rapid hepatic clearance. Because all benzodiazepines have a longer duration of action than flumazenil, sedation commonly recurs,
requiring repeated administration of the antagonist.
, 3
Adverse effects of flumazenil include agitation, confusion, dizziness, and nausea. Flumazenil may cause a severe precipitated abstinence syndrome
in patients who have developed physiologic benzodiazepine dependence. In patients who have ingested benzodiazepines with tricyclic
antidepressants, seizures and cardiac arrhythmias may follow flumazenil administration.
Antiarrhythmic drug classes-mechanisms of action, indications for use , side effects, and be able to identify by name
Antiarrhythmic drug classes:
• Class I - Sodium-channel blockers.
• Class II - Beta-blockers.
• Class III - Potassium-channel blockers.
• Class IV - Calcium-channel blockers.
• Miscellaneous - adenosine. - electrolyte supplement (magnesium and potassium salts) - digitalis compounds (cardiac glycosides)
Diuretic (thiazide, loop, potassium-sparing) classes- mechanism of action, indications for use, side effects, contraindications, and be
able to identify by name
NR567 Final Exam Study Guide latest update 2025
WITH ALL CASE STUDIES AND A STUDY GUIDE
LATEST LAB FINDINGS ALREADY GRADED A+
Therapeutic dosing and monitoring of warfarin (Coumadin)
Treatment with warfarin should be initiated with standard doses of 5–10 mg. The initial adjustment of the prothrombin time takes about 1 week,
which usually results in a maintenance dosage of 5–7 mg/d. The prothrombin time (PT) should be increased to a level representing a reduction of
prothrombin activity to 25% of normal and maintained there for long-term therapy. When the activity is less than 20%, the warfarin dosage should
be reduced or omitted until the activity rises above 20%. Inherited polymorphisms
in 2CYP2C9 and VKORC1 have significant effects on warfarin dosing; however, algorithms incorporating genomic information to predict initial
warfarin dosing were no better than standard clinical algorithms in two of three large randomized trials examining this issue. The recommended
INR for prophylaxis and treatment of thrombotic disease is 2–3. Patients with some types of artificial heart valves (eg, tilting disk) or other medical
conditions increasing thrombotic risk have a recommended range of 2.5–3.5.
Types of anticoagulants- mechanisms of action and indications for use
• Vitamin K antagonists.
• Direct Oral Anticoagulants (DOACs)
• Low molecular weight heparins (LMWH)
What is the mechanism of action for anticoagulants?
• Anticoagulants achieve their effect by suppressing the synthesis or function of various clotting factors that are normally present in the
blood. Such drugs are often used to prevent the formation of blood clots (thrombi) in the veins or arteries or the enlargement of a clot
that is circulating in the bloodstream.
What are the indications for anticoagulants?
• Anticoagulation is an important component of the management strategy for several common medical conditions. It is indicated for the
prevention of recurrent thrombosis in patients with venous thromboembolism (VTE), which includes deep venous thrombosis and
pulmonary embolism, and ischemic stroke.
Understand Starling’s law
The Frank-Starling Law states that the stroke volume of the left ventricle will increase as the left ventricular volume increases due to the myocyte
stretch causing a more forceful systolic contraction. This assumes that other factors remain constant.
The Frank–Starling law of the eart (also known as h Starling's law and the Frank–Starling mechanism) represents the relationship between
stroke volume and end e.[1] T diastolic volum he law states that the stroke volume of the heart increases in
response to an increase in the volume of blood in the ventricles, before contraction (the end diastolic volume), when all
other factors remain constant. [1] As a larger volume of blood flows into the ventricle, the blood stretches the cardiac
muscle fibers, leading to an increase in the force of contraction. The Frank-Starling mechanism allows the
,2
cardiac output to be synchronized with the venous return, arterial blood supply and humoral length,[2] without depending upon external regulation
to make alterations. The physiological importance of the mechanism lies mainly in maintaining left and right ventricular output equality.
Medications which increase and decrease preload and afterload
For heart failure, ACE inhibitors and ARBs reduce workload on the myocardium by reducing both preload and afterload.
Preload: When some measure of left ventricular performance such as stroke volume or stroke work is plotted as a function of left ventricular filling
pressure or end-diastolic fiber length, the resulting curve is termed the left ventricular function curve (Figure 13–4). The ascending limb (<15 mm
Hg filling pressure) represents the classic Frank-Starling relation described in physiology texts. Beyond approximately 15 mm Hg, there is a plateau
of performance. Preloads greater than 20–25 mm Hg result in pulmonary congestion. As noted above, preload is usually increased in heart failure
because of increased blood volume and venous tone. Because the function curve of the failing heart is lower, the plateau is reached at much lower
values of stroke work or output. Increased fiber length or filling pressure increases oxygen demand in the myocardium, as described in Chapter 12.
Reduction of high filling pressure is the goal of salt restriction and diuretic therapy in heart failure. Venodilator drugs (eg, nitroglycerin) also reduce
preload by redistributing blood away from the chest into peripheral veins.
Afterload: Afterload is the resistance against which the heart must pump blood and is represented by aortic impedance and systemic vascular
resistance. As noted in Figure 13–2, as cardiac output falls in chronic failure, a reflex increase in systemic vascular resistance occurs, mediated in
part by increased sympathetic outflow and circulating catecholamines and in part by activation of the reninangiotensin system. Endothelin, a
potent vasoconstrictor peptide, is also involved. This sets the stage for the use of drugs that reduce arteriolar tone in heart failure.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Antidote therapies for benzodiazepines
Flumazenil is approved for use in reversing the CNS depressant effects of benzodiazepine overdose and to hasten recovery following use of these
drugs in anesthetic and diagnostic procedures. Although the drug reverses the sedative effects of benzodiazepines, antagonism of
benzodiazepineinduced respiratory depression is less predictable. When given intravenously, flumazenil acts rapidly but has a short half-life (0.7–
1.3 hours) due to rapid hepatic clearance. Because all benzodiazepines have a longer duration of action than flumazenil, sedation commonly recurs,
requiring repeated administration of the antagonist.
, 3
Adverse effects of flumazenil include agitation, confusion, dizziness, and nausea. Flumazenil may cause a severe precipitated abstinence syndrome
in patients who have developed physiologic benzodiazepine dependence. In patients who have ingested benzodiazepines with tricyclic
antidepressants, seizures and cardiac arrhythmias may follow flumazenil administration.
Antiarrhythmic drug classes-mechanisms of action, indications for use , side effects, and be able to identify by name
Antiarrhythmic drug classes:
• Class I - Sodium-channel blockers.
• Class II - Beta-blockers.
• Class III - Potassium-channel blockers.
• Class IV - Calcium-channel blockers.
• Miscellaneous - adenosine. - electrolyte supplement (magnesium and potassium salts) - digitalis compounds (cardiac glycosides)
Diuretic (thiazide, loop, potassium-sparing) classes- mechanism of action, indications for use, side effects, contraindications, and be
able to identify by name
