EDEXCEL Learning Theories Essay Plans
Classical Conditioning
AO1: Classical conditioning: A learning theory based on association – learning occurs when a
neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) until the NS
alone produces the same response.The Process:
Before conditioning
- UCS → UCR (e.g. food → salivation)
- NS → no response (e.g. bell → nothing)
During conditioning
- NS + UCS → UCR (e.g. bell + food → salivation)
After conditioning
- CS (was NS) → CR (e.g. bell → salivation)
Extinction: If the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, the CR fades over time.
Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, the CR can reappear suddenly when the CS is
presented again, even after a break.
Stimulus Generalisation: A similar stimulus to the original CS (e.g. a different tone of bell) can still
trigger the CR. Stimulus Discrimination: different words produces different CRs.
AO3:Strength: Watson & Rayner (1920) demonstrated classical conditioning in humans. Little
Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat (NS → CS) by pairing it with a loud bang (UCS → UCR
of fear). This supports the idea that emotional responses (like fear) can be learned through
association.
However, weakness: cannot fully explain complex learned behaviours, such as why some
phobias persist even without regular exposure to the fear trigger. For example, someone may
fear dogs for years despite no negative encounters, which classical conditioning alone can't
explain (cognitive factors like irrational beliefs may play a role too).
Application: useful in Aversion therapy: Used to treat unwanted behaviours by reconditioning the
response to a stimulus. Example: Treating inappropriate sexual arousal to a photo of a child:
NS = photo of child (no natural aversive response)
UCS = an unpleasant stimulus (e.g. electric shock or nausea-inducing drug)
UCR = discomfort or nausea
Over time, the NS (photo) becomes a CS → triggers the CR of nausea/disgust, replacing the
arousal.
This shows how CC can be applied to reduce harmful responses through association with
unpleasant outcomes
Pavlov (1927)
AO1: Aim: To investigate whether dogs could learn to salivate to a neutral stimulus (a bell)
through association.
Procedure: Pavlov used dogs in a controlled lab setting. He initially rang a bell (neutral stimulus)
with no salivation response. Then, he paired the bell with the presentation of food (unconditioned
stimulus), which naturally caused salivation (unconditioned response). After several pairings, the
bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus) triggered salivation (conditioned response). Further
, variations used to investigate extinction and spontaneous recovery (eg. metronome (now CS)
was presented several times without UCS, producing extinction).
Findings: Dogs began to salivate to the bell alone, showing that learning occurred through
association, 9s after metronome in one of the trials. Extinction of salivation was seen (salivary
volume declined when CS was without UCS) and response spontaneously recovered over a few
trials.
Conclusion: Animals (and by extension, humans) can learn reflex behaviours through
association, supporting the idea that behaviour is not just instinctive but can be learned.
AO3:Strength: is High construct validity: Controlled conditions (e.g., soundproof chamber), saliva
measured using cannula, and a clearly neutral stimulus (bell) ensured precise measurement of
learning.
However, weakness: is Low population validity: Study was conducted on dogs, not humans. We
have larger, more complex brains, so we’re more aware of our decisions, making it hard to
generalise findings.
Application: Forms the basis for treatments of phobias, like systematic desensitisation, which
uses classical conditioning to replace fear responses with relaxation.
Operant Conditioning
AO1: Operant conditioning: A type of learning where behaviour is shaped by consequences.
Skinner (1948): Trained animals using reinforcement schedules in a Skinner box, showing how
rewards and punishments shape voluntary behaviour, such as operating a lever.
Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour (e.g., giving food when
a lever is pressed). Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase
behaviour (e.g., electric shock stops when lever is pressed).
Primary reinforcers:Things that satisfy biological needs (e.g., food, water).
Secondary reinforcers:Things that gain value through association with primary ones (e.g., money,
praise).
Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour (e.g., giving a shock
when wrong lever is pressed). Negative punishment: Taking away a pleasant stimulus to
decrease behaviour (e.g., removing food for unwanted behaviour).
AO3:Strength: is that Chase et al (2015) Found that the effects of reinforcement and punishment
observed in animal studies are consistent in humans, supporting the theory’s generalisability
across species.
However, weakness: Incomplete explanation: can explain how behaviours are strengthened or
weakened, but not how entirely new behaviours are initially acquired. It doesn't explain the origin
of behaviours that haven't yet been performed.
Application: Operant principles are used in schools where positive reinforcement (e.g., praise,
reward charts) encourages good behaviour, and negative consequences discourage
misbehaviour.
Behaviour Modification and Behaviour Shaping
AO1:Schedules of Reinforcement (used to strengthen behaviours):
Classical Conditioning
AO1: Classical conditioning: A learning theory based on association – learning occurs when a
neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) until the NS
alone produces the same response.The Process:
Before conditioning
- UCS → UCR (e.g. food → salivation)
- NS → no response (e.g. bell → nothing)
During conditioning
- NS + UCS → UCR (e.g. bell + food → salivation)
After conditioning
- CS (was NS) → CR (e.g. bell → salivation)
Extinction: If the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, the CR fades over time.
Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, the CR can reappear suddenly when the CS is
presented again, even after a break.
Stimulus Generalisation: A similar stimulus to the original CS (e.g. a different tone of bell) can still
trigger the CR. Stimulus Discrimination: different words produces different CRs.
AO3:Strength: Watson & Rayner (1920) demonstrated classical conditioning in humans. Little
Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat (NS → CS) by pairing it with a loud bang (UCS → UCR
of fear). This supports the idea that emotional responses (like fear) can be learned through
association.
However, weakness: cannot fully explain complex learned behaviours, such as why some
phobias persist even without regular exposure to the fear trigger. For example, someone may
fear dogs for years despite no negative encounters, which classical conditioning alone can't
explain (cognitive factors like irrational beliefs may play a role too).
Application: useful in Aversion therapy: Used to treat unwanted behaviours by reconditioning the
response to a stimulus. Example: Treating inappropriate sexual arousal to a photo of a child:
NS = photo of child (no natural aversive response)
UCS = an unpleasant stimulus (e.g. electric shock or nausea-inducing drug)
UCR = discomfort or nausea
Over time, the NS (photo) becomes a CS → triggers the CR of nausea/disgust, replacing the
arousal.
This shows how CC can be applied to reduce harmful responses through association with
unpleasant outcomes
Pavlov (1927)
AO1: Aim: To investigate whether dogs could learn to salivate to a neutral stimulus (a bell)
through association.
Procedure: Pavlov used dogs in a controlled lab setting. He initially rang a bell (neutral stimulus)
with no salivation response. Then, he paired the bell with the presentation of food (unconditioned
stimulus), which naturally caused salivation (unconditioned response). After several pairings, the
bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus) triggered salivation (conditioned response). Further
, variations used to investigate extinction and spontaneous recovery (eg. metronome (now CS)
was presented several times without UCS, producing extinction).
Findings: Dogs began to salivate to the bell alone, showing that learning occurred through
association, 9s after metronome in one of the trials. Extinction of salivation was seen (salivary
volume declined when CS was without UCS) and response spontaneously recovered over a few
trials.
Conclusion: Animals (and by extension, humans) can learn reflex behaviours through
association, supporting the idea that behaviour is not just instinctive but can be learned.
AO3:Strength: is High construct validity: Controlled conditions (e.g., soundproof chamber), saliva
measured using cannula, and a clearly neutral stimulus (bell) ensured precise measurement of
learning.
However, weakness: is Low population validity: Study was conducted on dogs, not humans. We
have larger, more complex brains, so we’re more aware of our decisions, making it hard to
generalise findings.
Application: Forms the basis for treatments of phobias, like systematic desensitisation, which
uses classical conditioning to replace fear responses with relaxation.
Operant Conditioning
AO1: Operant conditioning: A type of learning where behaviour is shaped by consequences.
Skinner (1948): Trained animals using reinforcement schedules in a Skinner box, showing how
rewards and punishments shape voluntary behaviour, such as operating a lever.
Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour (e.g., giving food when
a lever is pressed). Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase
behaviour (e.g., electric shock stops when lever is pressed).
Primary reinforcers:Things that satisfy biological needs (e.g., food, water).
Secondary reinforcers:Things that gain value through association with primary ones (e.g., money,
praise).
Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour (e.g., giving a shock
when wrong lever is pressed). Negative punishment: Taking away a pleasant stimulus to
decrease behaviour (e.g., removing food for unwanted behaviour).
AO3:Strength: is that Chase et al (2015) Found that the effects of reinforcement and punishment
observed in animal studies are consistent in humans, supporting the theory’s generalisability
across species.
However, weakness: Incomplete explanation: can explain how behaviours are strengthened or
weakened, but not how entirely new behaviours are initially acquired. It doesn't explain the origin
of behaviours that haven't yet been performed.
Application: Operant principles are used in schools where positive reinforcement (e.g., praise,
reward charts) encourages good behaviour, and negative consequences discourage
misbehaviour.
Behaviour Modification and Behaviour Shaping
AO1:Schedules of Reinforcement (used to strengthen behaviours):
