Page |1
PYC3715 Transformative Counselling Encounters
PRAXIS: translating an idea into action/ a complex activity where individuals co-create realities about
culture and society and become critically conscious human beings.
STUDY UNIT 1: BEGINNINGS: CREATING CONTEXT
Theoretical overview of counselling
Counselling psychology is a field that focuses on enhancing personal and interpersonal functioning in
individuals throughout their lives. It originated from the application of psychological techniques to help
soldiers cope with post-traumatic stress during WWII. It differs from clinical psychology, which focuses on
maladaptation and emotional disorders, focusing on adaptation and efficient use of internal coping
resources.
Counselling psychology is based on various theoretical approaches, including psychoanalytic,
behavioural, cognitive, self-theory, and phenomenological approaches. As no single theory can explain
human behaviour, there has been a shift towards synthesizing various approaches to address specific
personal and interpersonal circumstances. These synthesised approaches are referred to as "eclectic"
approaches.
Carl Rogers' Self theory, which emphasizes the construct 'self' as an individual's consistent picture of
themselves and what the individual calls “I” or “me”. The self is the part of an individual that is most dear
to them, and they will do everything in their power to protect it. When a person is in emotional pain, the self
is the part that needs healing or redress. Counselling students and practitioners must be theoretically
grounded in understanding the dynamic of 'self' and its representation to people. People seeking
counselling services are those whose 'sense of self' is injured and requires intervention.
Carl Rogers, a prominent figure in phenomenological theories (an approach that focuses attention on the
nature of immediate conscious experience), believed that people have a self-actualising tendency, a state
of maximum self-realization that they strive towards. This state integrates their physical, social,
intellectual, and emotional needs. Rogers’ proposition suggests that seeking counselling services is a way
to advance towards this state. To achieve this, Rogers proposed certain qualitative conditions for
counselling professionals to display.
Qualitative conditions of counselling
Carl Rogers proposed the qualitative conditions of counselling that all counselling professionals must
master to this day. The qualitative conditions that make counselling successful are:
• Empathy: “putting yourself in another person’s shoes”. Understanding another person from their own
frame of reference rather than one’s own. To have empathy with another person means you will understand
that person’s feelings, perceptions and thoughts as if they were your own. The as if quality is emphasised
because it does not mean you take over the other person’s feelings, thoughts and perceptions. You simply
experience them as if you were that person. Sympathy is having feelings of concern and compassion for
another person’s suffering; you feel for the person. In empathy, you are feeling with the person as if you are
them.
• Unconditional positive regard: Positive regard is a non-judgmental approach to a person's verbal or
behavioural communication, focusing on their positive aspects. It involves believing in the good intentions
and motivations of others. Rogers added the term 'unconditional' to emphasize its importance of being
non-judgemental. This approach encourages self-awareness and growth, as counsellors constantly seek
, Page |2
positive assets in their clients. However, this does not mean the counsellor accepts unacceptable
behaviour but rather points out its unacceptableness in a non-judgmental manner.
• Respect and warmth: Empathic understanding is built on respect and warmth, which are two key
components. Respect is the attitude of liking and accepting another person for who they are, the opposite
of hostility. Warmth is the emotional attitude towards the client expressed through non-verbal means like
tone of voice, facial expression, posture, and gestures. These components should always be
communicated and verbally expressed to the client. When there is a difference of opinion between the
counsellor and the client, respect and warmth can be expressed by the counsellor saying, "I disagree with
your opinion, but I respect your right to express it." This criticism of the client's views without making them
feel disparaged or disrespected.
• Concreteness: Concreteness refers to a counsellor's ability to clearly and specifically explain issues to
clients, ensuring they express themselves in a clear and understandable manner. Many clients provide
vague explanations, which can be confusing for both the counsellor and the client. A good counsellor
should be able to frame the client's narrative in a logical sequence, making it easy for both parties to
understand.
• Immediacy: Immediacy is a technique used by counsellors to interpret clients' verbalisations in the
present tense, allowing them to understand their current state. This is particularly useful when clients have
a vague understanding of the present, past, and future, making it difficult for them to express themselves.
For instance, when a client shares a distressing account of a robbery, the counsellor can interpret their
trembling, shaky voice, and crying face as immediate. This approach makes clients feel heard and
respected, like concreteness and positive regard.
• Confrontation: Confrontation in counselling is a process where the counsellor points out discrepancies
between attitudes, thoughts, and behaviours. It is not about telling the client that they are wrong but rather
helping them understand and grapple with their thought process. An example of confrontation
verbalisation is when a client expresses their desire to go to university but also plans to stay up late studying
or seek protection against their husband. Confrontation helps clients examine their thought processes and
identify double messages, but it should be used carefully as it may damage the counselling relationship,
especially in the beginning stages of the counselling process.
• Congruence, Genuineness, Authenticity: Carl Rogers emphasized the importance of a counsellor
being a congruent, integrated person, demonstrating honesty and openness within the relationship. This
approach avoids presenting a façade and ensures that the counsellor’s verbal and non-verbal
communication is integrated and non-defensive. However, this does not mean the counsellor should be
reckless in expressing their views. Their honest verbalizations should be balanced with empathy and
unconditional positive regard, allowing the counsellor to communicate uncomfortable information without
being hurtful. An example of a counsellor verbalizing this way is expressing discomfort with a client,
highlighting their discomfort with their behaviour and the potential impact on others.
The counselling process: Overview of principles
Counselling is a professional activity that requires a clear understanding of the process and the counselling
relationship, also known as the working alliance or therapeutic alliance. Counsellors must establish good
rapport with clients to facilitate self-understanding and deepen understanding. Rapport is a warm, relaxed
relationship of mutual understanding between two or among individuals. It starts with the initial contact
and continues throughout the counselling process. Effective rapport is crucial for individuals seeking
counselling, as it may be the first encounter with a professional counsellor and may either encourage or
, Page |3
discourage them from seeking future sessions. Clients are invited to enter a contract, either verbal or
written, outlining the counsellor's offerings, allowing them to make an informed decision on whether to
proceed.
A contract will usually cover the following areas:
• Time and day/s of session/s.
• Duration of the session
• How many sessions are available
• The approach used by the counsellor
• Fee (if a paid service)
• Cancellation policies
• How long your notes will be kept for, who can see them, and how they will be disposed of.
• Complaints procedure
• Confidentiality
Checking and verifying client expectations:
Counsellors are expected to maintain confidentiality, but there are exceptions for disclosures such as self-
harm, harm to others, money laundering, acts of terrorism, drug trafficking, and child protection issues.
These disclosures are typically mandated by organizations employing counsellors. Once clients agree to
contract, the work begins as they discuss their issues with the counsellor.
Confidentiality
the process of protecting an individual’s privacy. It pertains to treatment of information that an individual
has disclosed in a relationship of trust, with the expectation that this information will not be divulged to
others without permission.
Principles of confidentiality within counselling
Confidentiality in counselling is crucial as it ensures that what is said to the counsellor stays with them,
and they are not expected to discuss clients' issues outside the counselling context. This confidential
relationship may attract people to counselling. Counsellors should protect and respect their clients'
privacy, including personal details and records of sessions. The Health Professions Council of South Africa
(HPCSA) is the statutory body requiring health professionals to register and create national standards to
protect individuals' medical records and personal health information, including psychotherapy and mental
health information.
The clauses state that:
• No information is exchanged with a third party, unless with prior client consent.
• The content of the meeting remains private and confidential.
• In extreme circumstances, where the counsellor becomes concerned for the personal safety of the client
or other people, the client is informed that confidentiality may be broken.
Limitations and exceptions of confidentiality:
, Page |4
Counsellors take confidentiality seriously, but it cannot be absolute. Clients should be aware of limitations
and exceptions that prevent total confidentiality. Counsellors have legal and ethical obligations that can
serve as exceptions to confidentiality. Legally, counselling records can be subpoenaed by a court if they
are in the interest of a case before court, such as in cases of child sexual abuse or custody disputes. Ethical
decisions may require overlooking confidentiality requirements when other agencies need to be involved,
such as in a referral for a high-risk client. In cases where a client's case may be discussed with others, such
as parents of a teenager under 18, the counsellor should have a clear guideline on confidentiality and both
parents and child should be aware of the situation. If the counsellor works for an organization or health
facility, client information may be shared with relevant parties, such as nurses, for professional purposes,
with the client's wellbeing in mind.
Informed consent
Informed consent is a client's voluntary agreement to participate in a counselling or psychotherapy process
based on their understanding of the process, its benefits, risks, and alternatives. It is crucial in the standard
of care in counselling, psychotherapy, psychological assessment, and mental health research to ensure
clients fully understand the proposed interventions or procedures. Informed consent is applicable in
various situations, such as email communication, releasing confidential information, or recording
sessions. It protects both the client and the counsellor and should be in writing. If verbal, the counsellor
should record the client's agreement and emphasize the benefits and risks of the agreement.
The process of informed consent:
The process of securing informed consent has 3 phases, all involve the exchange of information between
counsellor and client.
1. The counsellor must clearly communicate the nature, risks, and benefits of a procedure, treatment, or
research to the client, allowing them to ask questions and engage in dialogue. They should outline feasible
alternatives to the treatment and emphasize the element of choice, ensuring the client is clear on all
options. The counsellor should also provide information about the most likely outcomes of the treatment
and the release of information, ensuring the client can understand it clearly and rationally.
2. The counsellor must assess a person's understanding and competency to make informed decisions
about healthcare, treatment, or other occurrences. They must ensure the client understands and accepts
the risks associated with the procedure, release, or treatment. If possible, the counsellor may verify that
the individual is proceeding with clear knowledge and forethought about the risks and benefits of the
chosen option.
3. The client must acknowledge being informed and express their consent in some way. Written informed
consent is one form of consent, but there are situations where it is not required or impossible to obtain. In
these cases, verbal or other consents may be used instead of written ones.
For persons who are legally incapable of giving informed consent:
(1) provide an appropriate explanation
(2) seek the individual's assent
(3) consider such persons' preferences and best interests
(4) obtain appropriate permission from a legally authorised person, if such substitute consent is permitted
or required by law.
Psychologists must protect individuals' rights and welfare when legally authorised consent is not required.
They must inform clients about anticipated services, confidentiality limits, and document consent,
PYC3715 Transformative Counselling Encounters
PRAXIS: translating an idea into action/ a complex activity where individuals co-create realities about
culture and society and become critically conscious human beings.
STUDY UNIT 1: BEGINNINGS: CREATING CONTEXT
Theoretical overview of counselling
Counselling psychology is a field that focuses on enhancing personal and interpersonal functioning in
individuals throughout their lives. It originated from the application of psychological techniques to help
soldiers cope with post-traumatic stress during WWII. It differs from clinical psychology, which focuses on
maladaptation and emotional disorders, focusing on adaptation and efficient use of internal coping
resources.
Counselling psychology is based on various theoretical approaches, including psychoanalytic,
behavioural, cognitive, self-theory, and phenomenological approaches. As no single theory can explain
human behaviour, there has been a shift towards synthesizing various approaches to address specific
personal and interpersonal circumstances. These synthesised approaches are referred to as "eclectic"
approaches.
Carl Rogers' Self theory, which emphasizes the construct 'self' as an individual's consistent picture of
themselves and what the individual calls “I” or “me”. The self is the part of an individual that is most dear
to them, and they will do everything in their power to protect it. When a person is in emotional pain, the self
is the part that needs healing or redress. Counselling students and practitioners must be theoretically
grounded in understanding the dynamic of 'self' and its representation to people. People seeking
counselling services are those whose 'sense of self' is injured and requires intervention.
Carl Rogers, a prominent figure in phenomenological theories (an approach that focuses attention on the
nature of immediate conscious experience), believed that people have a self-actualising tendency, a state
of maximum self-realization that they strive towards. This state integrates their physical, social,
intellectual, and emotional needs. Rogers’ proposition suggests that seeking counselling services is a way
to advance towards this state. To achieve this, Rogers proposed certain qualitative conditions for
counselling professionals to display.
Qualitative conditions of counselling
Carl Rogers proposed the qualitative conditions of counselling that all counselling professionals must
master to this day. The qualitative conditions that make counselling successful are:
• Empathy: “putting yourself in another person’s shoes”. Understanding another person from their own
frame of reference rather than one’s own. To have empathy with another person means you will understand
that person’s feelings, perceptions and thoughts as if they were your own. The as if quality is emphasised
because it does not mean you take over the other person’s feelings, thoughts and perceptions. You simply
experience them as if you were that person. Sympathy is having feelings of concern and compassion for
another person’s suffering; you feel for the person. In empathy, you are feeling with the person as if you are
them.
• Unconditional positive regard: Positive regard is a non-judgmental approach to a person's verbal or
behavioural communication, focusing on their positive aspects. It involves believing in the good intentions
and motivations of others. Rogers added the term 'unconditional' to emphasize its importance of being
non-judgemental. This approach encourages self-awareness and growth, as counsellors constantly seek
, Page |2
positive assets in their clients. However, this does not mean the counsellor accepts unacceptable
behaviour but rather points out its unacceptableness in a non-judgmental manner.
• Respect and warmth: Empathic understanding is built on respect and warmth, which are two key
components. Respect is the attitude of liking and accepting another person for who they are, the opposite
of hostility. Warmth is the emotional attitude towards the client expressed through non-verbal means like
tone of voice, facial expression, posture, and gestures. These components should always be
communicated and verbally expressed to the client. When there is a difference of opinion between the
counsellor and the client, respect and warmth can be expressed by the counsellor saying, "I disagree with
your opinion, but I respect your right to express it." This criticism of the client's views without making them
feel disparaged or disrespected.
• Concreteness: Concreteness refers to a counsellor's ability to clearly and specifically explain issues to
clients, ensuring they express themselves in a clear and understandable manner. Many clients provide
vague explanations, which can be confusing for both the counsellor and the client. A good counsellor
should be able to frame the client's narrative in a logical sequence, making it easy for both parties to
understand.
• Immediacy: Immediacy is a technique used by counsellors to interpret clients' verbalisations in the
present tense, allowing them to understand their current state. This is particularly useful when clients have
a vague understanding of the present, past, and future, making it difficult for them to express themselves.
For instance, when a client shares a distressing account of a robbery, the counsellor can interpret their
trembling, shaky voice, and crying face as immediate. This approach makes clients feel heard and
respected, like concreteness and positive regard.
• Confrontation: Confrontation in counselling is a process where the counsellor points out discrepancies
between attitudes, thoughts, and behaviours. It is not about telling the client that they are wrong but rather
helping them understand and grapple with their thought process. An example of confrontation
verbalisation is when a client expresses their desire to go to university but also plans to stay up late studying
or seek protection against their husband. Confrontation helps clients examine their thought processes and
identify double messages, but it should be used carefully as it may damage the counselling relationship,
especially in the beginning stages of the counselling process.
• Congruence, Genuineness, Authenticity: Carl Rogers emphasized the importance of a counsellor
being a congruent, integrated person, demonstrating honesty and openness within the relationship. This
approach avoids presenting a façade and ensures that the counsellor’s verbal and non-verbal
communication is integrated and non-defensive. However, this does not mean the counsellor should be
reckless in expressing their views. Their honest verbalizations should be balanced with empathy and
unconditional positive regard, allowing the counsellor to communicate uncomfortable information without
being hurtful. An example of a counsellor verbalizing this way is expressing discomfort with a client,
highlighting their discomfort with their behaviour and the potential impact on others.
The counselling process: Overview of principles
Counselling is a professional activity that requires a clear understanding of the process and the counselling
relationship, also known as the working alliance or therapeutic alliance. Counsellors must establish good
rapport with clients to facilitate self-understanding and deepen understanding. Rapport is a warm, relaxed
relationship of mutual understanding between two or among individuals. It starts with the initial contact
and continues throughout the counselling process. Effective rapport is crucial for individuals seeking
counselling, as it may be the first encounter with a professional counsellor and may either encourage or
, Page |3
discourage them from seeking future sessions. Clients are invited to enter a contract, either verbal or
written, outlining the counsellor's offerings, allowing them to make an informed decision on whether to
proceed.
A contract will usually cover the following areas:
• Time and day/s of session/s.
• Duration of the session
• How many sessions are available
• The approach used by the counsellor
• Fee (if a paid service)
• Cancellation policies
• How long your notes will be kept for, who can see them, and how they will be disposed of.
• Complaints procedure
• Confidentiality
Checking and verifying client expectations:
Counsellors are expected to maintain confidentiality, but there are exceptions for disclosures such as self-
harm, harm to others, money laundering, acts of terrorism, drug trafficking, and child protection issues.
These disclosures are typically mandated by organizations employing counsellors. Once clients agree to
contract, the work begins as they discuss their issues with the counsellor.
Confidentiality
the process of protecting an individual’s privacy. It pertains to treatment of information that an individual
has disclosed in a relationship of trust, with the expectation that this information will not be divulged to
others without permission.
Principles of confidentiality within counselling
Confidentiality in counselling is crucial as it ensures that what is said to the counsellor stays with them,
and they are not expected to discuss clients' issues outside the counselling context. This confidential
relationship may attract people to counselling. Counsellors should protect and respect their clients'
privacy, including personal details and records of sessions. The Health Professions Council of South Africa
(HPCSA) is the statutory body requiring health professionals to register and create national standards to
protect individuals' medical records and personal health information, including psychotherapy and mental
health information.
The clauses state that:
• No information is exchanged with a third party, unless with prior client consent.
• The content of the meeting remains private and confidential.
• In extreme circumstances, where the counsellor becomes concerned for the personal safety of the client
or other people, the client is informed that confidentiality may be broken.
Limitations and exceptions of confidentiality:
, Page |4
Counsellors take confidentiality seriously, but it cannot be absolute. Clients should be aware of limitations
and exceptions that prevent total confidentiality. Counsellors have legal and ethical obligations that can
serve as exceptions to confidentiality. Legally, counselling records can be subpoenaed by a court if they
are in the interest of a case before court, such as in cases of child sexual abuse or custody disputes. Ethical
decisions may require overlooking confidentiality requirements when other agencies need to be involved,
such as in a referral for a high-risk client. In cases where a client's case may be discussed with others, such
as parents of a teenager under 18, the counsellor should have a clear guideline on confidentiality and both
parents and child should be aware of the situation. If the counsellor works for an organization or health
facility, client information may be shared with relevant parties, such as nurses, for professional purposes,
with the client's wellbeing in mind.
Informed consent
Informed consent is a client's voluntary agreement to participate in a counselling or psychotherapy process
based on their understanding of the process, its benefits, risks, and alternatives. It is crucial in the standard
of care in counselling, psychotherapy, psychological assessment, and mental health research to ensure
clients fully understand the proposed interventions or procedures. Informed consent is applicable in
various situations, such as email communication, releasing confidential information, or recording
sessions. It protects both the client and the counsellor and should be in writing. If verbal, the counsellor
should record the client's agreement and emphasize the benefits and risks of the agreement.
The process of informed consent:
The process of securing informed consent has 3 phases, all involve the exchange of information between
counsellor and client.
1. The counsellor must clearly communicate the nature, risks, and benefits of a procedure, treatment, or
research to the client, allowing them to ask questions and engage in dialogue. They should outline feasible
alternatives to the treatment and emphasize the element of choice, ensuring the client is clear on all
options. The counsellor should also provide information about the most likely outcomes of the treatment
and the release of information, ensuring the client can understand it clearly and rationally.
2. The counsellor must assess a person's understanding and competency to make informed decisions
about healthcare, treatment, or other occurrences. They must ensure the client understands and accepts
the risks associated with the procedure, release, or treatment. If possible, the counsellor may verify that
the individual is proceeding with clear knowledge and forethought about the risks and benefits of the
chosen option.
3. The client must acknowledge being informed and express their consent in some way. Written informed
consent is one form of consent, but there are situations where it is not required or impossible to obtain. In
these cases, verbal or other consents may be used instead of written ones.
For persons who are legally incapable of giving informed consent:
(1) provide an appropriate explanation
(2) seek the individual's assent
(3) consider such persons' preferences and best interests
(4) obtain appropriate permission from a legally authorised person, if such substitute consent is permitted
or required by law.
Psychologists must protect individuals' rights and welfare when legally authorised consent is not required.
They must inform clients about anticipated services, confidentiality limits, and document consent,
