SUMMARY
WSET4: D3
WINES OF THE WORLD
Iwan Wiering RV, 2025-2026
www.wijnlerendrinken.nl
, Iwan Wiering RV, Summary WSET4 D3: Wines of the World, 2025-2026
Wine & Spirit Education Trust (WSET) - YouTube
1: Knowledge: factual recall (no higher skills, no critical thinking skills)
Command verbs: define, describe, identify, name, comment on, give examples, outline.
• Identify: name or point out specific facts, features, examples. No explanation needed, just list facts.
“Examples include…”, “one key variety is…”, “styles such as…”.
• State: present specific information clearly and concisely. One-line factual response. “The maximum
yield is…”, “the region is known for…”.
• Outline: provide a brief summary of key points. Stick to the essentials; don’t explain or justify.
“Main features include…”, “typically involves…”, “this includes”.
• Describe: to set out characteristics (give factual details about characteristics, features, steps: grape,
climate, process/technique, style/SAT, quality/BLIC). Use structured detail, but don’t explain why.
Often required in combination with other command verbs (e.g. describe and explain). Always start
with a short definition of the thing you are describing. “The wine is aged in…”, “the climate is…”,
“this grape produces wines with…”.
• Explain: Clarify how or why something happens: cause-and-effect. Structure your answer by using
categories: grape, soil, wine making…. “Results in…”, “leads to…”, “the effect is…”.
• Comment on: to state facts and give details on a given subject. A more detailed description, but still
knowledge-based.
2: Comprehension: use your knowledge to explain how and why (combine D1, D2, D3 in answer)
Command verbs: explain, summarise.
For example: Explain how the growing environment, grape varieties used and winemaking options contribute to the diversity of
DOC and DOCG wines in Friuli-Venezia Giulia.
Make headings: (1) growing environment; (2) grape varieties, (3) winemaking options. Make a plan: list as many DOC and DOCG
appellations as you can remember in the specified region. Then select the appellations that, collectively, demonstrate the widest
diversity. You don’t have to mention things from ALL the DOC/Gs, just enough to demonstrate diversity, that the question asks
about. Remember that the question is asking about ‘diversity’, not a ‘list of what you know from all the DOC/Gs in Fruili-Venezia-
Giulia’.
3: Application: explain (how and why) AND give reasons
Command verbs: explain, give reasons.
Demonstrate that you can apply knowledge: cause and effect. Show that you can use existing knowledge in
a new context, usually by making connections between what you know and new context. Describe it,
explain it, put it in context.
For example: “Explain why sedimentation is often the preferred clarification method of some natural wine producers.” This
question asks you to apply what you know about sedimentation to what you know about the aims of natural wine production.
Write a fact and immediately explain why it is relevant to answering the question.
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For explain-type questions: every time you write a fact/piece of description, immediately explain why it is
important/relevant to the question, i.e. explain how the fact helps answer the question.
Any options discussed need to be linked to the effect/influence they might have (e.g. on the style, quality
and price of the wines being produced).
For example: “Explain why wine makers use carbonic maceration in Beaujolais.”
• Carbonic maceration is (describe it)…….
• The impact of carbonic maceration is (explain it)…….
• The reason this is used in Beaujolais is (put it in context)……
NB: application questions are seldom indicated by the word ‘apply’. Instead, look for questions asking you
to explain HOW or WHY something happens. Always link back to the question.
• Explain WHY: to give reasons
• Explain HOW: to describe something so that it can be understood
• “this is my fact”. “here’s my explanation”
Ad in explanation words, such as: because, therefore, leads to, this means that, which means, which
explains how/why, this explains how/why, which allows / prevents / creates / causes / results in, so, in
order to/for)
Explain how the natural and human factors in vineyard and winery impact the style and quality of a Puligny Montrachet Premier
Cru.
Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru is pale to medium lemon, with pronounced intensity of well-defined concentrated lemon, apple, pear,
peach, smoke, vanilla, bread, toast and some potential nutty and honey tertiary aromas. The wine is dry, high acidity, medium
alcohol, full body and a long creamy finish. Overall the wine is outstanding and can age for a long time in bottle.
The natural factors that affect style and quality are:
Variety: Chardonnay, neutral/ high acid potential but creates well-defined flavours in a short growing season.
Budburst/ripening: suitable for cool/moderate continental climate, therefore creates concentrated flavours in a short season.
Cool/moderate continental climate, diurnal range: retains high acidity whilst ripening sufficiently allowing slow flavour
development which means pronounced intensity of well-defined primary lemon, apple flavours that linger on the finish for a long
time.
Aspect, soil (heat, drainage, water, nutrients): south-east facing limestone/clay, retains water but drains well, mid-slope means
optimal UV light and good drainage limiting high yield (village level max 47 hl/ha) and so producing pronounced intensity of
complex well-defined ripe pear, peach primary flavours, soil low in nutrients which means less vigour (green parts) and therefore
concentrated grapes.
The human factors in the winery that affect style and quality are:
Grape reception: processing is gentle and further sorting maintains pronounced well-defined aromas.
Destemming reduces bitterness.
Crushing and pressing is gentle which limits bitterness and maintains a low pH, which is important for the stability of the wine and
further bottle ageing potential. Skin contact is generally avoided for the same reason.
Clarification is gentle (e.g. egg white) to retain as much pronounced well-defined flavours as possible.
Alcoholic fermentation is moderate to warm (20-25C) to avoid low temperature fermentation esters, in French oak piece (228L),
medium toast, partially new (25%) for 9-12 months which creates the required toast, smoke, vanilla flavours.
MLF creates creamy flavour/texture.
Ambient yeast to retain a sense of terroir/complexity to the wine.
Lees contact: frequent bâtonnage increases the bread/yeasty complexity.
Sedimentation and fining are gentle to retain as much pronounced well-defined flavours as possible.
Combination of glass, cork, bottle age before release develops complex nutty, dried fruit, honey tertiary aromas.
Example: Explain how growing environment and growing practices affect the style of wines in Jumilla.
Jumilla, located in inland Mediterranean Spain, has a warm to hot continental, and very dry climate. Such hot growing season
conditions can result in ripe, and very ripe grapes, also with the risk of over-ripe grapes. Wines made from such grapes are likely to
have high alcohol from plentiful sugar production, as well as a full body. Acidity also risks being low. An important attribute of late
ripening monastrell is that it needs heat at the end of the growing season to fully ripen its high tannic load. Jumilla’s hot, dry
climate provides this. Additionally, Monastrell can successfully complete its growth and berry ripening with remarkably little water.
While Jumilla’s annual rainfall is very low, around 250-300mm per year, the limestone geology of the region retains just about
enough ground water — when vines are planted at very low density — to sustain annual growth during the dry growing season.
Therefore monastrell both thrives on Jumilla’s heat and can ripen fully with a small, regular supply of water. This helps to explain
why monastrell is the highly dominant variety grown in Jumilla, accounting for around 70% of plantings. Added to which, higher
quality clones have been planted in the last 30 years, which has notably improved wine quality. Another growing practice decision
is to harvest some parts of the appellation earlier than was done previously. This enables a lighter, less alcoholic style to be made in
addition to the dense, full-bodied style that you might have described in an earlier part of a question. You might also add that the
remaining 30% of plantings are of less tannic varieties (give example) than monastrell. These give blending opportunities to lower a
wine’s tannin level.
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4: Analysis: to distinguish how pieces of information relate to each other: compare
Command verbs: analyse, compare, research, select, examine.
To demonstrate your ability to analyse something, you need to show your understanding of how different
pieces of information relate to each other.
For example: “Compare two different methods used to clarify juice prior to fermentation.” This question
asks you to show that you understand what two different processes have in common and how they are
different. Always start with similarities, followed by differences. Use linking words such as: so, as, thus,
because, means, in contrast to, different to, same as, identical to, similar to, both, however, although, yet,
nevertheless, while/whilst, on the other hand, by comparison, unlike, whereas, on the contrary, conversely.
• Identify what you are comparing (justification)
• Describe what they have in common (start your 1st sentence with ‘both’.
• Describe and explain how they are different. Compare as you go through, so fact by fact. DO NOT
start with writing all about topic 1, followed by ‘in contrast’ and then all about topic 2.
NB: Analysis questions are often about comparison, so look for questions that ask you to identify and
compare, or to compare and contrast. Don’t forget to explain for each fact: WHY / HOW.
Example: Compare the successful grape growing and winemaking options for an Acceptable quality Western Cape Chenin Blanc
and an Outstanding quality Savennières and explain how it impacts the style and quality.
Start by making notes on your scratch paper: acceptable means: shorter finish, more simple flavours, slight balance issue in the
wine, higher yields, less sorting. Write down balance, length, intensity, complexity (BLIC). Start with comparing climate, then move
into vineyard, grape growing, harvesting, winemaking process. Compare in each topic in a paragraph such as:
Harvesting
As Chenin ripens unevenly, Savennières is hand harvested in several tris (each tri selecting the most optimal fruit); transported in
small crates (to minimize damage) thus maintaining well-defined and pronounced intensity aromas of apple and lemon.
In contrast Western Cape Chenin Blanc (WCCB) will be machine harvested (or even hand harvested as Savennières but with cheap
labour and with limited or no sorting in the vineyard). Picked at night or cooler part of day (retain high acidity and fresh apple and
pineapple aromas); transported chilled (reduce oxidation, maintain freshness/vibrancy).
Sorting
WCCB will see no extra sorting whereas Savennières will have additional optical/table sorting promoting pure/varietal/well-
defined/pronounced aromas.
Pressing
WCCB is pressed straight away in a pneumatic press (quick and efficient), flushed with inert gas, SO₂ to prevent oxidation and
maintain primary fruit such as fresh apple.
By contrast, Savennières, gentle pressing, possibly whole bunch, in pneumatic or basket press with less CO₂ used. The must may
see some skin contact with some acceptable levels of oxygen exposure (bruised apple) to allow extraction of phenols to add
texture/some tannins (full body) which would be avoided for WCCB where the lack of sorting could introduce bitter notes.
Fermentation
WCCB is fermented in temperature controlled stainless steel at cool temperatures (15C) with cultured yeasts to ensure quick,
complete fermentation (maintains primary fruit with possible additional fruit flavours from yeast. MLF avoided to maintain acidity
for balance.
In contrast, Savennières fermented in large old oak barrels, concrete eggs (enhance lees contact/texture) or stainless steel, at
moderate temperatures (18C to avoid fruity esters). Ambient yeast (adds more complex flavours) may be used. MLF not
encouraged (maintain acidity for balance/long ageing).
Maturation
WCCB typically rested in stainless steel or old oak for short time.
Whereas Savennières aged in a variety of ways/lengths of time to allow blending between lots for complexity of flavour and texture
– stainless steel for primary characteristics, large oak for texture and slightly nutty oxidative aromas, new oak for secondary toast,
smoke, vanilla.
Blending
WCCB is likely blended with other grapes (15% high acid Colombard) or from different sites/regions to meet fruity style/quality
expectations, high yield/consistency of style (fruit-forward) is prized over quality. Residual sugar (4-5 g/L) adjusted by blending
RCGM to improve balance and maintain it’s ‘easy to drink’ style.
In contrast, Savennières will be 100% Chenin Blanc. Wines from different sites/tris (greater complexity/intensity) or from different
fermentation/ageing techniques may be blended.
Example: compare grape varieties for Côte-Rôtie and Châteauneuf-du-Pape.
Both appellations plant syrah, and white varieties for blending into red wines.
Côte-Rôtie (CR) plantings are dominated by syrah, which is the only permitted black variety in the appellation. But in Châteauneuf-
du-Pape (CNDP) several black varieties are grown, mainly Grenache Noir, Mourvèdre as well as Syrah. Viognier is grown in CR, but is
not permitted in CNDP. CR is an appellation solely for red wine, despite allowing up to 20% of viognier in a blend. Unlike CR, CNDP
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also grows white grapes for a small amount of white production, mainly from Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Bourboulenc and
Roussanne.
The structural attributes of near-varietal Syrah influence wine style: both tannins and acid range from medium to high. Syrah’s
signature violet and black pepper aromas will dominate, with floral notes added if viognier is included. However, in CNDP, blends
are dominated by Grenache, which confers high alcohol, low to medium tannin and modest acidity, and ripe red fruits in a generally
fuller-bodied style.
Example: Compare the classification systems of Bordeaux and Burgundy (70% weighting).
(What are the advantages and disadvantages of each, from the perspective of the consumer (30% weighting)?)
Both systems are historic and well-established, with Bordeaux’s oldest classification dating back to 1855 and Burgundy’s having
been enshrined in law during the birth of France’s AOC system in the 1930s but with the delineation of the vineyard boundaries
dating back to the medieval monks.
Bordeaux has a set of classification systems whilst Burgundy has just one.
Bordeaux’s various systems could be described as estate-based and in some cases commercially-driven. In contrast, Burgundy’s
is a classification of land or terroir.
Bordeaux’s classified estates are not recognised within the appellation hierarchy, i.e. none is above commune level.
Additionally, some top wines in Bordeaux sit completely outside the classification system i.e. the prestigious estates of Pomerol like
Château Pétrus. In Burgundy, on the other hand, all vineyards are incorporated within the AOC hierarchy as either regional, village,
Premier Cru, or Grand Cru.
Some classifications in Bordeaux are subject to regular review and hence controversy. Conversely, the Burgundy system is not
subject to regular review and is relatively fixed.
5: Evaluation: to judge information and justify your choices: assess, evaluate.
Command verbs: assess, conclude, evaluate, investigate, recommend, discuss.
To judge the quality, importance, amount or value of something.
These type of questions are typically asked in the D3 unit.
• Evaluate: judge or assess quality, effectiveness, value. Make a judgement and support it with
evidence. “This is successful because…”, “the strength of this system is…”, “however, a limitation
is…”.
• Discuss: Present a balanced, detailed analysis with multiple viewpoints. Consider pros/cons, or
factors from multiple angles. “On one hand…”, “however, it can be argued…”, “this suggests
that…”.
• Justify: give reasons or evidence to support a decision or opinion. Be persuasive, with logical
support. “This is the most suitable, because…”, “evidence shows that…”.
FOR EVALUATION, FOLLOW THE NEXT PATH:
• Describe – Explain – Advantages/Strengths – Disadvantages/Weaknesses – Conclude
• Describe (define/describe what it is you are evaluating)
• Explain (explain how/why it is done)
• Advantages/Strengths (describe/explain)
• Disadvantages/Weaknesses (describe/explain)
• Conclude (judge the suitability of it and justify your opinion → WSET want your PERSONAL
OPINION in the conclusion)
To demonstrate your ability to evaluate something, you need to show that you can judge the quality,
importance, amount or value of something for yourself, and justify your judgement with reasons. The
conclusion should be a short summary of pros and cons, without adding new information, followed by
your opinion.
For example: “Evaluate the use of sedimentation as a method of clarification for high volume production of
inexpensive white wines.” This question asks you to make a judgement about the suitability of using
sedimentation as a method of clarification for high volume wine production.
NB: Evaluate questions often ask you to consider the advantage and disadvantages or strengths and
weaknesses of something within a specific context, so make sure you base your evaluation on the given
context. Always explain WHY it is a strength/weakness.
The type of skills you are being asked to demonstrate will influence what knowledge you include (it won’t
all be relevant!) and how you arrange that knowledge into a specific application, analysis or argument.
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NB: you MUST write a (short) conclusion: In conclusion……, Finally……. Looking at the advantages and
disadvantages, this is what I think:……… , because……..
Example: evaluate/access the suitability of using ambient yeast for very good to outstanding Châteauneuf-du-Pape red wine.
Ambient yeast, used for fermentation of sugar into alcohol, ambient yeasts (also called wild yeasts) are present in the vineyard and
the winery. They will include a range of yeast species (e.g. Kloeckera and Candida), most of which will die out as the alcohol rises
past 5%. Typically, Saccharomyces cerevisiae quickly becomes the dominant yeast, even in ‘wild fermentations’.
Chateauneuf-du-Pape (CNDP) is dry, medium acid/tannins, full-bodied, concentrated complex flavours (red plum, strawberry,
blackberry, dried herbs) balancing the high abv, and a long finish wine with ageing potential for further complexity (dried fruit,
forest floor). Coming from Southern Rhone, predominant grape variety is Grenache.
Advantages
• It is free to use so keeps production costs down.
• With the wide array of grape varieties that are allowed in CNDP, utilising ambient yeasts can further the sense of place
and terroir expression within the wines and the grape varieties that comprise the blend of the final wine, thereby adding
complexity to the layers provided by the grape varieties chosen by the winemaker.
• Ambient yeasts produce an array of flavours from the different strains present, thereby adding to the complexity of the
flavours in the wine.
• With very good or outstanding wines CNDP aligns with the history/identity and therefore supports higher prices in
marketing.
Disadvantages
• There is a potential for an incomplete fermentation and a wine with residual sugar should there not be enough of a
presence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to form a culture (other yeast strains such as Candida will die off at 5% abv)
therefore potentially a cultured yeast will have to be added increasing coast and labour (CNDP must be dry according to
AOC rules).
• If a winery or a winemaker wants to create a consistent style of CNDP, the winemaker has less control over the final
flavour and aromatic profile of the wine, as ambient yeast fermentations can produce less well-defined fruit flavours and
aromas, therefore impacting quality and have a lower ability to add secondary and tertiary aromas/flavours.
• Ambient yeasts can have a slow fermentation time, increasing the risk of spoilage organisms (Brettanomyces) and
bacteria that cause volatile acidity (acetic acid bacteria) therefore reducing yields and quality.
Conclusion 1
Although there are some disadvantages (reliability, consistency), ambient yeast is suitable because the positives outweigh the
disadvantages. In particular ambient yeasts ability to bring a unique character (terroir) to the blend, resulting in outstanding
complexity, purity of fruit and higher price achieved. There is also the benefit of marketing the wine as ‘wild ferment’, leading to
greater demand and higher price achieved. Furthermore, vintage variation and extended time in the winery before release will be
less of a concern for the winery (not as much time pressure for this sort of wine).
Conclusion 2
Ambient yeast is not suitable because the disadvantages of using wild yeasts outweigh the benefits. In particular, the consistency of
product achieved by using cultured yeasts would be preferable in comparison to the potential vintage variations and
inconsistencies resulting from using ambient yeasts. Although there are additional costs when using cultured yeast (initial
purchase, however, relatively small), there is a much greater risk of spoilage when using ambient yeasts which would be costly to
rectify. Winemakers in CNDP would also be less concerned with the initial cost involved.
Example: Assess the strengths and weaknesses of Greece as a wine producing country.
There’s no mention of ‘growing environment’, ‘grape growing options’, ‘winemaking options, ‘wine law and regulation’, or ‘wine
business’ in this question. You will need to include examples/arguments that cover ALL your learning outcomes.
The command verb “assess” indicated that candidates were expected to go beyond simply listing a variety of strengths and
weaknesses, and to provide an evaluation of each of them. Nearly all answers highlighted the favourable Mediterranean climate as
a suitable place to grow grapes, but only the better candidates noted how the variation of climates and moderating factors ensures
that Greece can grow a wide range of varieties and produce different styles of wine at all quality levels and price points. The very
best answers were able to take this a stage further - taking a factor such as climate and discussing how it can be both a strength
and a weakness. As above for a strength, but also a weakness insofar as the harsh and dry conditions in places such as Santorini
make grape growing challenging and require specialist viticultural methods resulting in very low yields. Papers that were able to do
this across a range of different factors stood out clearly from the pack.
Example: What are the strengths and weaknesses of Cabernet Sauvignon from Australia?
There’s no mention of ‘growing environment’, ‘grape growing options’, ‘winemaking options, ‘wine law and regulation’, or ‘wine
business’ in this question. You will need to include examples/arguments that cover ALL your learning outcomes.
Better candidates were able to observe not only that Cabernet performs well on terra rossa soil in Coonawarra, but why it does,
and that it offers a distinctive flavour profile, which in turn creates a unique selling point for Australia and the potential for a soft
brand which gives commercial traction to the whole industry. Candidates are expected to be able to analyse and explain, rather
than just offer a simple descriptive commentary.
Candidates who were able to put Cabernet Sauvignon into context against other Australian wines and discuss Australian Cabernet
Sauvignon compared to other leading examples of the grape around the world performed well. Successful candidates also tended
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to discuss commercial considerations, branding and climate trends as well as grape growing and winemaking. Better candidates
also gave relevant examples and linked their arguments to the question set.
Example: Assess the strengths and weaknesses of Portugal as a wine producing country.
You are expected to EVALUATE/ASSESS. Include evidence from all four learning outcome sectors: growing environment, grape
growing options, winemaking options, wine law and regulation / wine business (commercial stuff). Writing a (bullet point-style) list
of strengths and weaknesses will not get you many marks. You need to evaluate each of the items.
To be successful (and especially to achieve the higher passing grades), candidates were expected to name some of Portugal’s more
unusual native grapes and the regions associated with them, e.g. “Baga in Bairrada”, “Encruzado in Dão”.
While providing lists of strengths and weaknesses might have been enough to earn a basic pass (depending on the extent of these
lists), to score the higher marks, candidates needed to provide some form of context; identifying which factors are most important
in contributing to the success of (or lack of) Portugal for producing wine. When candidates attempted this and covered topics such
as climate, variety (grapes/regions), history, consumer perception, funding and modernisation, and commercial factors, merits and
distinctions were awarded.
Just looking at diversity of wines as a strength: Growing environment strength: diversity of climate, coolish-maritime (Vinho
Verde), hottish (Douro), warm e.g. Alentejo, therefore styles from fresh white, to big, hulking red. Grape growing strength:
diversity of varieties. Uniqueness of some varieties. Diversity of prices. Link with climate for diversity of styles. Indigenous varieties
as counter to increasing ubiquity of ‘international’ varieties. Include examples of inherent variety attributes and how they are
reflected in the glass to offer new flavours/stories to consumers (or something). You have quite a lot of freedom around what to
include (and therefore exclude) in a question like this. You’re being asked to use your judgement to prioritise some important
factors.
The relevant knowledge will influence how you structure your answer – perhaps structuring your answer
according to the steps in a specific process will be most clear, or according to natural factors vs. human
factors, or using a SWOT analysis. The important consideration is to plan your approach before you start
writing.
If you want to focus your answer on a particular point of view or argument, you may want to include an
opening line or two, framing your point of view.
Connecting words or phrases are often important when answering comprehension and analysis style
questions. Remember, comprehension questions should demonstrate how or why things work, and analysis
question answers should highlight similarities and differences.
Comprehension: because, therefore, as a result……
Analysis: however, although, yet, in contrast, nevertheless…….
Be specific: instead of: "Most Vinho Verde is bottled for release soon after the end of fermentation."
However, to show comprehension, discuss maturation:
• Inexpensive styles are bottled quickly to preserve fresh, primary fruit characteristics.
• Higher-quality wines may spend time on lees to enhance texture and develop specific flavours.
Multi-part questions:
• You might mention machine harvesting under product (flavours), and you might mention it again under price and/or
people (economic production, accessibility). It is fine to use the same piece of evidence/example in more than section of
an answer. The explain bit about the ‘fact’ might vary.
• You might mention inert vessel fermentation, temperature control under production (flavours), and you’ll also want to
mention this under people and/or promotion (consistency, reliability aid popularity, ease of sales communication.)
• You might mention climatic factors that aid ease of production under ‘product’, and under ‘price’ for competitivity.
Note that essay questions often result in low scores for those who are not used to writing essays.
Note: for a 40-minutes question WSET expects you to write 600-800 words (2-4 pages).
“With reference to the growing environment, grape-growing options, and winemaking techniques, account for the diversity of
wine styles in Alto Adige.”
Examiners want to see how specific production factors create that diversity - you’ve got to make links.
Examiners expect you to link production factors to wine styles. But when the question asks about diversity, there is an extra layer
you need to include. You must show how differences in style are created within a single region. It is not just about how Alto Adige
produces Pinot Grigio and Lagrein. It is about explaining how the region’s conditions create a spectrum of styles – crisp aromatic
whites vs. fuller-bodied whites, light reds vs. structured reds.
This means highlighting differences – altitude, soil variation, training methods, and blending rules that drive stylistic variation, and
of course making links between each of those production factors and the variations in style.
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How to do it:
When you see ‘diversity’ in a question, structure your answer like this:
• Start by defining the range of styles produced in the region.
• For each production factor (growing environment, grape-growing, winemaking), do not just describe its influence. Show
how it creates contrasts using linking phrases such as ‘whereas’, ‘contrasting with’ or ‘distinct from’.
Example: Instead of saying ‘Altitude affects ripeness and acidity’, a high-scoring answer explains:
'Higher-altitude vineyards lead to lighter, fresher styles, whereas lower-altitude vineyards lead to deeper colour (in reds) and fuller
body.'
Example: The choice of grape variety/ies is an important option that the grower can choose to affect stylistic diversity. So:
'White varieties: Pinot Grigio, Chardonnay & Pinot Bianco are popular varieties, producing high-acid, moderate-bodied wines,
contrasting with more aromatic whites like Gewürztraminer, Sauvignon Blanc or Riesling.'
'Red varieties: Schiava (Vernatsch) gives light-bodied, pale and perfumed reds, distinct from the deeply coloured, tannic Lagrein.
Pinot Noir varies by site; fresher and more delicate at higher altitudes, fuller-bodied in warmer locations.'
How to plan your answer in the exam:
Comment on the production of Grand Cru Riesling in Alsace, using the following categories to structure your answer:
Grape variety (10%) → 3 minutes
Growing conditions (45%) → 13.5 minutes
Winemaking techniques (45%) → 13.5 minutes
1. ‘Comment on’: state the facts and give details on a given subject. This means combining definitions (facts) and descriptions of
grape variety, growing environment and winemaking techniques along with identification of these points in relation to production
of Grand Cru Riesling in Alsace.
2. Use the sub-headings to create structure, and include the following key facts under each:
Grape variety: Retains high acidity, significant potential for ageing, can be pronounced intensity with a large range of aromas and
flavours and depending on ripeness.
Growing environment: optimising heat and sunlight, best sites, south/south east facing, steep slopes, long growing season.
Winemaking options: grape selection in winery, skin contact, stainless steel, cool fermentation, unoaked, no MLC.
When discussing oak, think of TOAST:
• Time in barrel
• Origin of the oak (French/American)
• Age (new/old)
• Size (small/large)
• Toasting (light/heavy)
NB: ‘production’ means viticulture AND vinification:
• Climate
• Grape growing, including grape varieties,
• Winemaking
Discuss the options that producers might select along the way and the reasons for these choices. Some will
be (comparatively) inexpensive regional blends while others may be super-premium, outstanding quality
examples from small plots in exceptional vineyards: how can this variation in quality and style be
achieved, i.e. by identifying and describing the options available to the producer (different qualities and
styles – by describing different options, and their effects in the glass).
Grape growing options start from the beginning – climate, diurnal variation, soil diversity, selecting site and
clones to be planted. Planting density, irrigation, canopy management, yield control, grape selection,
harvesting and organic growing are just some of the topics that would be relevant.
Winemaking needs to address the initial processing of grapes, pre-fermentation operations, yeast choices,
fermentation temperature and duration, maturation options, filtration and pre-bottling treatments.
5P’s:
Key selling points of wines. Different quality wines are marketed in different ways to specific target audiences and
consumers [‘people’] will have different and varied reasons for purchasing them [linked to the ‘place’ where they
might purchase them]. Price is always a key factor but there are many others to consider: imaginative, commercially
aware, logical and lateral thinking. For example, Pinot Noir has a reputation for high quality wines whereas Merlot is
widely available and approachable in style (fruit driven, soft tannins etc) [‘product’]. Red Burgundy is now
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, Iwan Wiering RV, Summary WSET4 D3: Wines of the World, 2025-2026
prohibitively expensive for most wine drinkers so Pinot Noir wines from other parts of the world often provide an
affordable alternative for lovers of this variety – particularly those wines from areas that model their wines on the
classic Burgundy style or share similarities in climate that facilitates production of wines of a similar style
[‘promotion’?]. This affordability / availability is a key selling point for these wines. However, there are many other
selling points.
Things to mention in virtually all questions:
Continental: cold winters, warm summers
High latitude advantage: long daylength in the growing season helps development of aromas and flavours
and retain acidity in the grapes, attributing to the wine style. Disadvantage: risk of frost, untimely rainfall,
risk of fungal diseases, short growing season, potentially affecting quality and quantity.
Slope: better drained, better protected from frost.
Mid-slope: well-draining shallow soils, good sunlight interception, comparative frost protection, better
ripening potential due to central position. Very top of slope very poor, thin soil and exposed to cooling
winds, while bottom deeper soils and vulnerable to frost.
Early budding: susceptible/vulnerable to spring frosts.
Late budding: some protection from spring frosts.
Early ripening: usually picked before autumn rains.
Mid-ripening: less prone to late season rain / picked before early autumn rain.
Late ripening: vulnerable to early autumn rains. Needs warmer soils, or warm climate with long ripening
season.
Old vines: low yields and high quality.
Bush vines: suited to dry climate and restrain natural vigour.
Guyot (replacement-cane pruned with VSP): requires skilled vineyard workers during pruning, but helpful in
combating trunk disease and also aids canopy management during growing season.
Double Guyot: if one cane fails, other may survive frost.
Cordon-trained, spur-pruned: limits vigour and thus reduces yields naturally, although high proportion old
wood can harbour disease. Better aeration bunches.
Canopy management: reduce downy mildew, powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot.
Leaf removal in summer: improve aeration, deter rot, aid ripening.
Rain: spring rain can affect flowering and fruit set, regular summer rain increases disease pressure, rain late
summer + early autumn can affect harvest.
High summer temperatures, low rainfall and drying winds from sea: reduce threat of fungal diseases.
Thick skins: less prone to damage from rot.
Slopes: thinner (poorer, less fertile) soils → smaller berries → higher skin to juice ratio → higher tannins →
better ageing capacities. Better drained, better protected from frost.
South exposition: better light interception → riper fruit, greater weight/concentration.
High yields allowed: leading to some wines of low concentration and flavour.
Clay soils: better water holding capacity → larger berries.
Limestone: good drainage and water retention.
Inexpensive: limited or no sorting. White clarified by quick methods.
Premium: Sorting, plot by plot winemaking in small vessels (adding to cost). Sorting tables (remove
diseased, damaged, underripe fruit for consistent quality in cool climate). White clarified by sedimentation.
Pre-fermentation skin contact: for texture and flavour intensity, more aromatics, phenolic complexity
(grapes need to be fully healthy, otherwise off-flavours extracted).
Maceration on skin: enhance fruitiness and depth of colour (wine for early consumption).
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Cultured yeast: reliable and rapid ferment to dry, consistent fruity style, helps fermentation to fast start
without off flavours. High volume wines.
Ambient yeast: terroir expression.
Fermentation at cool to mid-range temperatures in stainless steel: to retain primary fruit. Avoid too cool
temperatures to avoid estery banana aromas.
Longer ageing on the lees after fermentation: for fuller body and to add/enhance texture, weight and
complexity.
Lees stirring (bâtonnage): to enrich wine further, reduce reductive flavours + add creamier texture.
Ageing in stainless steel: saves cost compared to barriques, avoid overwhelming the delicate aromas.
Barrel ageing: gentle oxidation, adding complexity.
Micro-oxygenation: to prevent reduction and help to soften tannins.
High altitude:
▪ Temperature decreases by about 0.6°C to 0.8°C (depending on latitude) per 100m increase in altitude above
sea level (asl)
▪ Diurnal temperature range increases with higher altitude asl. Lower night time temperature reduces
respiration rate, particularly of malic acid, of grapes.
▪ Ultraviolet radiation increases with increasing altitude asl. Increased photosynthesis: thicker skins, more
anthocyanins and polymerised tannins.
▪ Growing seasons shorten between 2 and 4 days per ~100m increase in altitude asl. Vine growth can still be
strong because of greater UV and higher diurnal temperature range
▪ Carbon dioxide uptake is lower at higher altitude asl, which limits photosynthesis. Vine growth may be
stunted.
▪ Risks such as frost, hail, winter hardiness, winds and higher production costs increase with higher altitude asl.
The 12 Key Factors to answer exam questions:
• Location: Latitude, Altitude (just remember altitudes >900 m), Water, Mountains, Currents, Aspect
• Weather: Wind, Precipitation, Frost, Hail, Sunshine, Fog, Humidity
• Climate: Precipitation, Sunshine, Temperature, Continentality, Humidity
• Viticulture: Site, Rootstock, Density, Pruning, Training, Canopy, Pests, Disease, Yield, Harvest
• Soil: Origin (solidified magma or lava / metamorphic / sedimentary), Texture (sand / silt / clay)
• Vinification: Crushing/destemming, Appasimento, Cold maceration, Chaptalisation, Acidification / De-acidification,
Fermentation, Yeast, Maceration, Temperature, Whole bunch, Lees, MLF, Maturation, Racking / fining / filtering,
Stabilisation, Blending, Bottling/vessel/closure
• Scale: Yield, Ha planted, HL produced, Volume exported, Volume bottled, Regional production, DOC production
• Legislation: PDO / PGI, Special Terms, History, Examples, Numbers
o Style: Sparkling (Dry, Medium, Sweet / Red, White, Rosé), White / Red / Rosé / Sweet (Light, Medium, Full),
Oak, flor, MLF, dried grapes
• History
• Current issues: Scandals, Effects, M & A (Mergers & Acquisitions), Legislation (new, changes), Brexit, Elections, Social
Media, Technology, Brands, Macro-economic changes, Journalists, Counterfeiting
Natural and human factors in vineyard and winery to mention in your answer:
Variety, budburst/ripening, acids, flavours
Climate
Aspect, soil (heat, drainage, water, nutrients, diurnal range)
Training
Canopy management (fungal diseases)
Density
Harvest (timing, manual/machine)
Grape reception, destemming, crushing, skin contact, pressing, clarification, fermentation, MLF
Yeast (ambient/cultured)
Fermentation (temperature, vessels)
Sedimentation/fining
Ageing (vessels, lees contact)
Packaging, closure
Bottle ageing
10
WSET4: D3
WINES OF THE WORLD
Iwan Wiering RV, 2025-2026
www.wijnlerendrinken.nl
, Iwan Wiering RV, Summary WSET4 D3: Wines of the World, 2025-2026
Wine & Spirit Education Trust (WSET) - YouTube
1: Knowledge: factual recall (no higher skills, no critical thinking skills)
Command verbs: define, describe, identify, name, comment on, give examples, outline.
• Identify: name or point out specific facts, features, examples. No explanation needed, just list facts.
“Examples include…”, “one key variety is…”, “styles such as…”.
• State: present specific information clearly and concisely. One-line factual response. “The maximum
yield is…”, “the region is known for…”.
• Outline: provide a brief summary of key points. Stick to the essentials; don’t explain or justify.
“Main features include…”, “typically involves…”, “this includes”.
• Describe: to set out characteristics (give factual details about characteristics, features, steps: grape,
climate, process/technique, style/SAT, quality/BLIC). Use structured detail, but don’t explain why.
Often required in combination with other command verbs (e.g. describe and explain). Always start
with a short definition of the thing you are describing. “The wine is aged in…”, “the climate is…”,
“this grape produces wines with…”.
• Explain: Clarify how or why something happens: cause-and-effect. Structure your answer by using
categories: grape, soil, wine making…. “Results in…”, “leads to…”, “the effect is…”.
• Comment on: to state facts and give details on a given subject. A more detailed description, but still
knowledge-based.
2: Comprehension: use your knowledge to explain how and why (combine D1, D2, D3 in answer)
Command verbs: explain, summarise.
For example: Explain how the growing environment, grape varieties used and winemaking options contribute to the diversity of
DOC and DOCG wines in Friuli-Venezia Giulia.
Make headings: (1) growing environment; (2) grape varieties, (3) winemaking options. Make a plan: list as many DOC and DOCG
appellations as you can remember in the specified region. Then select the appellations that, collectively, demonstrate the widest
diversity. You don’t have to mention things from ALL the DOC/Gs, just enough to demonstrate diversity, that the question asks
about. Remember that the question is asking about ‘diversity’, not a ‘list of what you know from all the DOC/Gs in Fruili-Venezia-
Giulia’.
3: Application: explain (how and why) AND give reasons
Command verbs: explain, give reasons.
Demonstrate that you can apply knowledge: cause and effect. Show that you can use existing knowledge in
a new context, usually by making connections between what you know and new context. Describe it,
explain it, put it in context.
For example: “Explain why sedimentation is often the preferred clarification method of some natural wine producers.” This
question asks you to apply what you know about sedimentation to what you know about the aims of natural wine production.
Write a fact and immediately explain why it is relevant to answering the question.
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For explain-type questions: every time you write a fact/piece of description, immediately explain why it is
important/relevant to the question, i.e. explain how the fact helps answer the question.
Any options discussed need to be linked to the effect/influence they might have (e.g. on the style, quality
and price of the wines being produced).
For example: “Explain why wine makers use carbonic maceration in Beaujolais.”
• Carbonic maceration is (describe it)…….
• The impact of carbonic maceration is (explain it)…….
• The reason this is used in Beaujolais is (put it in context)……
NB: application questions are seldom indicated by the word ‘apply’. Instead, look for questions asking you
to explain HOW or WHY something happens. Always link back to the question.
• Explain WHY: to give reasons
• Explain HOW: to describe something so that it can be understood
• “this is my fact”. “here’s my explanation”
Ad in explanation words, such as: because, therefore, leads to, this means that, which means, which
explains how/why, this explains how/why, which allows / prevents / creates / causes / results in, so, in
order to/for)
Explain how the natural and human factors in vineyard and winery impact the style and quality of a Puligny Montrachet Premier
Cru.
Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru is pale to medium lemon, with pronounced intensity of well-defined concentrated lemon, apple, pear,
peach, smoke, vanilla, bread, toast and some potential nutty and honey tertiary aromas. The wine is dry, high acidity, medium
alcohol, full body and a long creamy finish. Overall the wine is outstanding and can age for a long time in bottle.
The natural factors that affect style and quality are:
Variety: Chardonnay, neutral/ high acid potential but creates well-defined flavours in a short growing season.
Budburst/ripening: suitable for cool/moderate continental climate, therefore creates concentrated flavours in a short season.
Cool/moderate continental climate, diurnal range: retains high acidity whilst ripening sufficiently allowing slow flavour
development which means pronounced intensity of well-defined primary lemon, apple flavours that linger on the finish for a long
time.
Aspect, soil (heat, drainage, water, nutrients): south-east facing limestone/clay, retains water but drains well, mid-slope means
optimal UV light and good drainage limiting high yield (village level max 47 hl/ha) and so producing pronounced intensity of
complex well-defined ripe pear, peach primary flavours, soil low in nutrients which means less vigour (green parts) and therefore
concentrated grapes.
The human factors in the winery that affect style and quality are:
Grape reception: processing is gentle and further sorting maintains pronounced well-defined aromas.
Destemming reduces bitterness.
Crushing and pressing is gentle which limits bitterness and maintains a low pH, which is important for the stability of the wine and
further bottle ageing potential. Skin contact is generally avoided for the same reason.
Clarification is gentle (e.g. egg white) to retain as much pronounced well-defined flavours as possible.
Alcoholic fermentation is moderate to warm (20-25C) to avoid low temperature fermentation esters, in French oak piece (228L),
medium toast, partially new (25%) for 9-12 months which creates the required toast, smoke, vanilla flavours.
MLF creates creamy flavour/texture.
Ambient yeast to retain a sense of terroir/complexity to the wine.
Lees contact: frequent bâtonnage increases the bread/yeasty complexity.
Sedimentation and fining are gentle to retain as much pronounced well-defined flavours as possible.
Combination of glass, cork, bottle age before release develops complex nutty, dried fruit, honey tertiary aromas.
Example: Explain how growing environment and growing practices affect the style of wines in Jumilla.
Jumilla, located in inland Mediterranean Spain, has a warm to hot continental, and very dry climate. Such hot growing season
conditions can result in ripe, and very ripe grapes, also with the risk of over-ripe grapes. Wines made from such grapes are likely to
have high alcohol from plentiful sugar production, as well as a full body. Acidity also risks being low. An important attribute of late
ripening monastrell is that it needs heat at the end of the growing season to fully ripen its high tannic load. Jumilla’s hot, dry
climate provides this. Additionally, Monastrell can successfully complete its growth and berry ripening with remarkably little water.
While Jumilla’s annual rainfall is very low, around 250-300mm per year, the limestone geology of the region retains just about
enough ground water — when vines are planted at very low density — to sustain annual growth during the dry growing season.
Therefore monastrell both thrives on Jumilla’s heat and can ripen fully with a small, regular supply of water. This helps to explain
why monastrell is the highly dominant variety grown in Jumilla, accounting for around 70% of plantings. Added to which, higher
quality clones have been planted in the last 30 years, which has notably improved wine quality. Another growing practice decision
is to harvest some parts of the appellation earlier than was done previously. This enables a lighter, less alcoholic style to be made in
addition to the dense, full-bodied style that you might have described in an earlier part of a question. You might also add that the
remaining 30% of plantings are of less tannic varieties (give example) than monastrell. These give blending opportunities to lower a
wine’s tannin level.
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4: Analysis: to distinguish how pieces of information relate to each other: compare
Command verbs: analyse, compare, research, select, examine.
To demonstrate your ability to analyse something, you need to show your understanding of how different
pieces of information relate to each other.
For example: “Compare two different methods used to clarify juice prior to fermentation.” This question
asks you to show that you understand what two different processes have in common and how they are
different. Always start with similarities, followed by differences. Use linking words such as: so, as, thus,
because, means, in contrast to, different to, same as, identical to, similar to, both, however, although, yet,
nevertheless, while/whilst, on the other hand, by comparison, unlike, whereas, on the contrary, conversely.
• Identify what you are comparing (justification)
• Describe what they have in common (start your 1st sentence with ‘both’.
• Describe and explain how they are different. Compare as you go through, so fact by fact. DO NOT
start with writing all about topic 1, followed by ‘in contrast’ and then all about topic 2.
NB: Analysis questions are often about comparison, so look for questions that ask you to identify and
compare, or to compare and contrast. Don’t forget to explain for each fact: WHY / HOW.
Example: Compare the successful grape growing and winemaking options for an Acceptable quality Western Cape Chenin Blanc
and an Outstanding quality Savennières and explain how it impacts the style and quality.
Start by making notes on your scratch paper: acceptable means: shorter finish, more simple flavours, slight balance issue in the
wine, higher yields, less sorting. Write down balance, length, intensity, complexity (BLIC). Start with comparing climate, then move
into vineyard, grape growing, harvesting, winemaking process. Compare in each topic in a paragraph such as:
Harvesting
As Chenin ripens unevenly, Savennières is hand harvested in several tris (each tri selecting the most optimal fruit); transported in
small crates (to minimize damage) thus maintaining well-defined and pronounced intensity aromas of apple and lemon.
In contrast Western Cape Chenin Blanc (WCCB) will be machine harvested (or even hand harvested as Savennières but with cheap
labour and with limited or no sorting in the vineyard). Picked at night or cooler part of day (retain high acidity and fresh apple and
pineapple aromas); transported chilled (reduce oxidation, maintain freshness/vibrancy).
Sorting
WCCB will see no extra sorting whereas Savennières will have additional optical/table sorting promoting pure/varietal/well-
defined/pronounced aromas.
Pressing
WCCB is pressed straight away in a pneumatic press (quick and efficient), flushed with inert gas, SO₂ to prevent oxidation and
maintain primary fruit such as fresh apple.
By contrast, Savennières, gentle pressing, possibly whole bunch, in pneumatic or basket press with less CO₂ used. The must may
see some skin contact with some acceptable levels of oxygen exposure (bruised apple) to allow extraction of phenols to add
texture/some tannins (full body) which would be avoided for WCCB where the lack of sorting could introduce bitter notes.
Fermentation
WCCB is fermented in temperature controlled stainless steel at cool temperatures (15C) with cultured yeasts to ensure quick,
complete fermentation (maintains primary fruit with possible additional fruit flavours from yeast. MLF avoided to maintain acidity
for balance.
In contrast, Savennières fermented in large old oak barrels, concrete eggs (enhance lees contact/texture) or stainless steel, at
moderate temperatures (18C to avoid fruity esters). Ambient yeast (adds more complex flavours) may be used. MLF not
encouraged (maintain acidity for balance/long ageing).
Maturation
WCCB typically rested in stainless steel or old oak for short time.
Whereas Savennières aged in a variety of ways/lengths of time to allow blending between lots for complexity of flavour and texture
– stainless steel for primary characteristics, large oak for texture and slightly nutty oxidative aromas, new oak for secondary toast,
smoke, vanilla.
Blending
WCCB is likely blended with other grapes (15% high acid Colombard) or from different sites/regions to meet fruity style/quality
expectations, high yield/consistency of style (fruit-forward) is prized over quality. Residual sugar (4-5 g/L) adjusted by blending
RCGM to improve balance and maintain it’s ‘easy to drink’ style.
In contrast, Savennières will be 100% Chenin Blanc. Wines from different sites/tris (greater complexity/intensity) or from different
fermentation/ageing techniques may be blended.
Example: compare grape varieties for Côte-Rôtie and Châteauneuf-du-Pape.
Both appellations plant syrah, and white varieties for blending into red wines.
Côte-Rôtie (CR) plantings are dominated by syrah, which is the only permitted black variety in the appellation. But in Châteauneuf-
du-Pape (CNDP) several black varieties are grown, mainly Grenache Noir, Mourvèdre as well as Syrah. Viognier is grown in CR, but is
not permitted in CNDP. CR is an appellation solely for red wine, despite allowing up to 20% of viognier in a blend. Unlike CR, CNDP
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also grows white grapes for a small amount of white production, mainly from Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Bourboulenc and
Roussanne.
The structural attributes of near-varietal Syrah influence wine style: both tannins and acid range from medium to high. Syrah’s
signature violet and black pepper aromas will dominate, with floral notes added if viognier is included. However, in CNDP, blends
are dominated by Grenache, which confers high alcohol, low to medium tannin and modest acidity, and ripe red fruits in a generally
fuller-bodied style.
Example: Compare the classification systems of Bordeaux and Burgundy (70% weighting).
(What are the advantages and disadvantages of each, from the perspective of the consumer (30% weighting)?)
Both systems are historic and well-established, with Bordeaux’s oldest classification dating back to 1855 and Burgundy’s having
been enshrined in law during the birth of France’s AOC system in the 1930s but with the delineation of the vineyard boundaries
dating back to the medieval monks.
Bordeaux has a set of classification systems whilst Burgundy has just one.
Bordeaux’s various systems could be described as estate-based and in some cases commercially-driven. In contrast, Burgundy’s
is a classification of land or terroir.
Bordeaux’s classified estates are not recognised within the appellation hierarchy, i.e. none is above commune level.
Additionally, some top wines in Bordeaux sit completely outside the classification system i.e. the prestigious estates of Pomerol like
Château Pétrus. In Burgundy, on the other hand, all vineyards are incorporated within the AOC hierarchy as either regional, village,
Premier Cru, or Grand Cru.
Some classifications in Bordeaux are subject to regular review and hence controversy. Conversely, the Burgundy system is not
subject to regular review and is relatively fixed.
5: Evaluation: to judge information and justify your choices: assess, evaluate.
Command verbs: assess, conclude, evaluate, investigate, recommend, discuss.
To judge the quality, importance, amount or value of something.
These type of questions are typically asked in the D3 unit.
• Evaluate: judge or assess quality, effectiveness, value. Make a judgement and support it with
evidence. “This is successful because…”, “the strength of this system is…”, “however, a limitation
is…”.
• Discuss: Present a balanced, detailed analysis with multiple viewpoints. Consider pros/cons, or
factors from multiple angles. “On one hand…”, “however, it can be argued…”, “this suggests
that…”.
• Justify: give reasons or evidence to support a decision or opinion. Be persuasive, with logical
support. “This is the most suitable, because…”, “evidence shows that…”.
FOR EVALUATION, FOLLOW THE NEXT PATH:
• Describe – Explain – Advantages/Strengths – Disadvantages/Weaknesses – Conclude
• Describe (define/describe what it is you are evaluating)
• Explain (explain how/why it is done)
• Advantages/Strengths (describe/explain)
• Disadvantages/Weaknesses (describe/explain)
• Conclude (judge the suitability of it and justify your opinion → WSET want your PERSONAL
OPINION in the conclusion)
To demonstrate your ability to evaluate something, you need to show that you can judge the quality,
importance, amount or value of something for yourself, and justify your judgement with reasons. The
conclusion should be a short summary of pros and cons, without adding new information, followed by
your opinion.
For example: “Evaluate the use of sedimentation as a method of clarification for high volume production of
inexpensive white wines.” This question asks you to make a judgement about the suitability of using
sedimentation as a method of clarification for high volume wine production.
NB: Evaluate questions often ask you to consider the advantage and disadvantages or strengths and
weaknesses of something within a specific context, so make sure you base your evaluation on the given
context. Always explain WHY it is a strength/weakness.
The type of skills you are being asked to demonstrate will influence what knowledge you include (it won’t
all be relevant!) and how you arrange that knowledge into a specific application, analysis or argument.
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NB: you MUST write a (short) conclusion: In conclusion……, Finally……. Looking at the advantages and
disadvantages, this is what I think:……… , because……..
Example: evaluate/access the suitability of using ambient yeast for very good to outstanding Châteauneuf-du-Pape red wine.
Ambient yeast, used for fermentation of sugar into alcohol, ambient yeasts (also called wild yeasts) are present in the vineyard and
the winery. They will include a range of yeast species (e.g. Kloeckera and Candida), most of which will die out as the alcohol rises
past 5%. Typically, Saccharomyces cerevisiae quickly becomes the dominant yeast, even in ‘wild fermentations’.
Chateauneuf-du-Pape (CNDP) is dry, medium acid/tannins, full-bodied, concentrated complex flavours (red plum, strawberry,
blackberry, dried herbs) balancing the high abv, and a long finish wine with ageing potential for further complexity (dried fruit,
forest floor). Coming from Southern Rhone, predominant grape variety is Grenache.
Advantages
• It is free to use so keeps production costs down.
• With the wide array of grape varieties that are allowed in CNDP, utilising ambient yeasts can further the sense of place
and terroir expression within the wines and the grape varieties that comprise the blend of the final wine, thereby adding
complexity to the layers provided by the grape varieties chosen by the winemaker.
• Ambient yeasts produce an array of flavours from the different strains present, thereby adding to the complexity of the
flavours in the wine.
• With very good or outstanding wines CNDP aligns with the history/identity and therefore supports higher prices in
marketing.
Disadvantages
• There is a potential for an incomplete fermentation and a wine with residual sugar should there not be enough of a
presence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to form a culture (other yeast strains such as Candida will die off at 5% abv)
therefore potentially a cultured yeast will have to be added increasing coast and labour (CNDP must be dry according to
AOC rules).
• If a winery or a winemaker wants to create a consistent style of CNDP, the winemaker has less control over the final
flavour and aromatic profile of the wine, as ambient yeast fermentations can produce less well-defined fruit flavours and
aromas, therefore impacting quality and have a lower ability to add secondary and tertiary aromas/flavours.
• Ambient yeasts can have a slow fermentation time, increasing the risk of spoilage organisms (Brettanomyces) and
bacteria that cause volatile acidity (acetic acid bacteria) therefore reducing yields and quality.
Conclusion 1
Although there are some disadvantages (reliability, consistency), ambient yeast is suitable because the positives outweigh the
disadvantages. In particular ambient yeasts ability to bring a unique character (terroir) to the blend, resulting in outstanding
complexity, purity of fruit and higher price achieved. There is also the benefit of marketing the wine as ‘wild ferment’, leading to
greater demand and higher price achieved. Furthermore, vintage variation and extended time in the winery before release will be
less of a concern for the winery (not as much time pressure for this sort of wine).
Conclusion 2
Ambient yeast is not suitable because the disadvantages of using wild yeasts outweigh the benefits. In particular, the consistency of
product achieved by using cultured yeasts would be preferable in comparison to the potential vintage variations and
inconsistencies resulting from using ambient yeasts. Although there are additional costs when using cultured yeast (initial
purchase, however, relatively small), there is a much greater risk of spoilage when using ambient yeasts which would be costly to
rectify. Winemakers in CNDP would also be less concerned with the initial cost involved.
Example: Assess the strengths and weaknesses of Greece as a wine producing country.
There’s no mention of ‘growing environment’, ‘grape growing options’, ‘winemaking options, ‘wine law and regulation’, or ‘wine
business’ in this question. You will need to include examples/arguments that cover ALL your learning outcomes.
The command verb “assess” indicated that candidates were expected to go beyond simply listing a variety of strengths and
weaknesses, and to provide an evaluation of each of them. Nearly all answers highlighted the favourable Mediterranean climate as
a suitable place to grow grapes, but only the better candidates noted how the variation of climates and moderating factors ensures
that Greece can grow a wide range of varieties and produce different styles of wine at all quality levels and price points. The very
best answers were able to take this a stage further - taking a factor such as climate and discussing how it can be both a strength
and a weakness. As above for a strength, but also a weakness insofar as the harsh and dry conditions in places such as Santorini
make grape growing challenging and require specialist viticultural methods resulting in very low yields. Papers that were able to do
this across a range of different factors stood out clearly from the pack.
Example: What are the strengths and weaknesses of Cabernet Sauvignon from Australia?
There’s no mention of ‘growing environment’, ‘grape growing options’, ‘winemaking options, ‘wine law and regulation’, or ‘wine
business’ in this question. You will need to include examples/arguments that cover ALL your learning outcomes.
Better candidates were able to observe not only that Cabernet performs well on terra rossa soil in Coonawarra, but why it does,
and that it offers a distinctive flavour profile, which in turn creates a unique selling point for Australia and the potential for a soft
brand which gives commercial traction to the whole industry. Candidates are expected to be able to analyse and explain, rather
than just offer a simple descriptive commentary.
Candidates who were able to put Cabernet Sauvignon into context against other Australian wines and discuss Australian Cabernet
Sauvignon compared to other leading examples of the grape around the world performed well. Successful candidates also tended
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to discuss commercial considerations, branding and climate trends as well as grape growing and winemaking. Better candidates
also gave relevant examples and linked their arguments to the question set.
Example: Assess the strengths and weaknesses of Portugal as a wine producing country.
You are expected to EVALUATE/ASSESS. Include evidence from all four learning outcome sectors: growing environment, grape
growing options, winemaking options, wine law and regulation / wine business (commercial stuff). Writing a (bullet point-style) list
of strengths and weaknesses will not get you many marks. You need to evaluate each of the items.
To be successful (and especially to achieve the higher passing grades), candidates were expected to name some of Portugal’s more
unusual native grapes and the regions associated with them, e.g. “Baga in Bairrada”, “Encruzado in Dão”.
While providing lists of strengths and weaknesses might have been enough to earn a basic pass (depending on the extent of these
lists), to score the higher marks, candidates needed to provide some form of context; identifying which factors are most important
in contributing to the success of (or lack of) Portugal for producing wine. When candidates attempted this and covered topics such
as climate, variety (grapes/regions), history, consumer perception, funding and modernisation, and commercial factors, merits and
distinctions were awarded.
Just looking at diversity of wines as a strength: Growing environment strength: diversity of climate, coolish-maritime (Vinho
Verde), hottish (Douro), warm e.g. Alentejo, therefore styles from fresh white, to big, hulking red. Grape growing strength:
diversity of varieties. Uniqueness of some varieties. Diversity of prices. Link with climate for diversity of styles. Indigenous varieties
as counter to increasing ubiquity of ‘international’ varieties. Include examples of inherent variety attributes and how they are
reflected in the glass to offer new flavours/stories to consumers (or something). You have quite a lot of freedom around what to
include (and therefore exclude) in a question like this. You’re being asked to use your judgement to prioritise some important
factors.
The relevant knowledge will influence how you structure your answer – perhaps structuring your answer
according to the steps in a specific process will be most clear, or according to natural factors vs. human
factors, or using a SWOT analysis. The important consideration is to plan your approach before you start
writing.
If you want to focus your answer on a particular point of view or argument, you may want to include an
opening line or two, framing your point of view.
Connecting words or phrases are often important when answering comprehension and analysis style
questions. Remember, comprehension questions should demonstrate how or why things work, and analysis
question answers should highlight similarities and differences.
Comprehension: because, therefore, as a result……
Analysis: however, although, yet, in contrast, nevertheless…….
Be specific: instead of: "Most Vinho Verde is bottled for release soon after the end of fermentation."
However, to show comprehension, discuss maturation:
• Inexpensive styles are bottled quickly to preserve fresh, primary fruit characteristics.
• Higher-quality wines may spend time on lees to enhance texture and develop specific flavours.
Multi-part questions:
• You might mention machine harvesting under product (flavours), and you might mention it again under price and/or
people (economic production, accessibility). It is fine to use the same piece of evidence/example in more than section of
an answer. The explain bit about the ‘fact’ might vary.
• You might mention inert vessel fermentation, temperature control under production (flavours), and you’ll also want to
mention this under people and/or promotion (consistency, reliability aid popularity, ease of sales communication.)
• You might mention climatic factors that aid ease of production under ‘product’, and under ‘price’ for competitivity.
Note that essay questions often result in low scores for those who are not used to writing essays.
Note: for a 40-minutes question WSET expects you to write 600-800 words (2-4 pages).
“With reference to the growing environment, grape-growing options, and winemaking techniques, account for the diversity of
wine styles in Alto Adige.”
Examiners want to see how specific production factors create that diversity - you’ve got to make links.
Examiners expect you to link production factors to wine styles. But when the question asks about diversity, there is an extra layer
you need to include. You must show how differences in style are created within a single region. It is not just about how Alto Adige
produces Pinot Grigio and Lagrein. It is about explaining how the region’s conditions create a spectrum of styles – crisp aromatic
whites vs. fuller-bodied whites, light reds vs. structured reds.
This means highlighting differences – altitude, soil variation, training methods, and blending rules that drive stylistic variation, and
of course making links between each of those production factors and the variations in style.
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, Iwan Wiering RV, Summary WSET4 D3: Wines of the World, 2025-2026
How to do it:
When you see ‘diversity’ in a question, structure your answer like this:
• Start by defining the range of styles produced in the region.
• For each production factor (growing environment, grape-growing, winemaking), do not just describe its influence. Show
how it creates contrasts using linking phrases such as ‘whereas’, ‘contrasting with’ or ‘distinct from’.
Example: Instead of saying ‘Altitude affects ripeness and acidity’, a high-scoring answer explains:
'Higher-altitude vineyards lead to lighter, fresher styles, whereas lower-altitude vineyards lead to deeper colour (in reds) and fuller
body.'
Example: The choice of grape variety/ies is an important option that the grower can choose to affect stylistic diversity. So:
'White varieties: Pinot Grigio, Chardonnay & Pinot Bianco are popular varieties, producing high-acid, moderate-bodied wines,
contrasting with more aromatic whites like Gewürztraminer, Sauvignon Blanc or Riesling.'
'Red varieties: Schiava (Vernatsch) gives light-bodied, pale and perfumed reds, distinct from the deeply coloured, tannic Lagrein.
Pinot Noir varies by site; fresher and more delicate at higher altitudes, fuller-bodied in warmer locations.'
How to plan your answer in the exam:
Comment on the production of Grand Cru Riesling in Alsace, using the following categories to structure your answer:
Grape variety (10%) → 3 minutes
Growing conditions (45%) → 13.5 minutes
Winemaking techniques (45%) → 13.5 minutes
1. ‘Comment on’: state the facts and give details on a given subject. This means combining definitions (facts) and descriptions of
grape variety, growing environment and winemaking techniques along with identification of these points in relation to production
of Grand Cru Riesling in Alsace.
2. Use the sub-headings to create structure, and include the following key facts under each:
Grape variety: Retains high acidity, significant potential for ageing, can be pronounced intensity with a large range of aromas and
flavours and depending on ripeness.
Growing environment: optimising heat and sunlight, best sites, south/south east facing, steep slopes, long growing season.
Winemaking options: grape selection in winery, skin contact, stainless steel, cool fermentation, unoaked, no MLC.
When discussing oak, think of TOAST:
• Time in barrel
• Origin of the oak (French/American)
• Age (new/old)
• Size (small/large)
• Toasting (light/heavy)
NB: ‘production’ means viticulture AND vinification:
• Climate
• Grape growing, including grape varieties,
• Winemaking
Discuss the options that producers might select along the way and the reasons for these choices. Some will
be (comparatively) inexpensive regional blends while others may be super-premium, outstanding quality
examples from small plots in exceptional vineyards: how can this variation in quality and style be
achieved, i.e. by identifying and describing the options available to the producer (different qualities and
styles – by describing different options, and their effects in the glass).
Grape growing options start from the beginning – climate, diurnal variation, soil diversity, selecting site and
clones to be planted. Planting density, irrigation, canopy management, yield control, grape selection,
harvesting and organic growing are just some of the topics that would be relevant.
Winemaking needs to address the initial processing of grapes, pre-fermentation operations, yeast choices,
fermentation temperature and duration, maturation options, filtration and pre-bottling treatments.
5P’s:
Key selling points of wines. Different quality wines are marketed in different ways to specific target audiences and
consumers [‘people’] will have different and varied reasons for purchasing them [linked to the ‘place’ where they
might purchase them]. Price is always a key factor but there are many others to consider: imaginative, commercially
aware, logical and lateral thinking. For example, Pinot Noir has a reputation for high quality wines whereas Merlot is
widely available and approachable in style (fruit driven, soft tannins etc) [‘product’]. Red Burgundy is now
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, Iwan Wiering RV, Summary WSET4 D3: Wines of the World, 2025-2026
prohibitively expensive for most wine drinkers so Pinot Noir wines from other parts of the world often provide an
affordable alternative for lovers of this variety – particularly those wines from areas that model their wines on the
classic Burgundy style or share similarities in climate that facilitates production of wines of a similar style
[‘promotion’?]. This affordability / availability is a key selling point for these wines. However, there are many other
selling points.
Things to mention in virtually all questions:
Continental: cold winters, warm summers
High latitude advantage: long daylength in the growing season helps development of aromas and flavours
and retain acidity in the grapes, attributing to the wine style. Disadvantage: risk of frost, untimely rainfall,
risk of fungal diseases, short growing season, potentially affecting quality and quantity.
Slope: better drained, better protected from frost.
Mid-slope: well-draining shallow soils, good sunlight interception, comparative frost protection, better
ripening potential due to central position. Very top of slope very poor, thin soil and exposed to cooling
winds, while bottom deeper soils and vulnerable to frost.
Early budding: susceptible/vulnerable to spring frosts.
Late budding: some protection from spring frosts.
Early ripening: usually picked before autumn rains.
Mid-ripening: less prone to late season rain / picked before early autumn rain.
Late ripening: vulnerable to early autumn rains. Needs warmer soils, or warm climate with long ripening
season.
Old vines: low yields and high quality.
Bush vines: suited to dry climate and restrain natural vigour.
Guyot (replacement-cane pruned with VSP): requires skilled vineyard workers during pruning, but helpful in
combating trunk disease and also aids canopy management during growing season.
Double Guyot: if one cane fails, other may survive frost.
Cordon-trained, spur-pruned: limits vigour and thus reduces yields naturally, although high proportion old
wood can harbour disease. Better aeration bunches.
Canopy management: reduce downy mildew, powdery mildew, botrytis bunch rot.
Leaf removal in summer: improve aeration, deter rot, aid ripening.
Rain: spring rain can affect flowering and fruit set, regular summer rain increases disease pressure, rain late
summer + early autumn can affect harvest.
High summer temperatures, low rainfall and drying winds from sea: reduce threat of fungal diseases.
Thick skins: less prone to damage from rot.
Slopes: thinner (poorer, less fertile) soils → smaller berries → higher skin to juice ratio → higher tannins →
better ageing capacities. Better drained, better protected from frost.
South exposition: better light interception → riper fruit, greater weight/concentration.
High yields allowed: leading to some wines of low concentration and flavour.
Clay soils: better water holding capacity → larger berries.
Limestone: good drainage and water retention.
Inexpensive: limited or no sorting. White clarified by quick methods.
Premium: Sorting, plot by plot winemaking in small vessels (adding to cost). Sorting tables (remove
diseased, damaged, underripe fruit for consistent quality in cool climate). White clarified by sedimentation.
Pre-fermentation skin contact: for texture and flavour intensity, more aromatics, phenolic complexity
(grapes need to be fully healthy, otherwise off-flavours extracted).
Maceration on skin: enhance fruitiness and depth of colour (wine for early consumption).
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, Iwan Wiering RV, Summary WSET4 D3: Wines of the World, 2025-2026
Cultured yeast: reliable and rapid ferment to dry, consistent fruity style, helps fermentation to fast start
without off flavours. High volume wines.
Ambient yeast: terroir expression.
Fermentation at cool to mid-range temperatures in stainless steel: to retain primary fruit. Avoid too cool
temperatures to avoid estery banana aromas.
Longer ageing on the lees after fermentation: for fuller body and to add/enhance texture, weight and
complexity.
Lees stirring (bâtonnage): to enrich wine further, reduce reductive flavours + add creamier texture.
Ageing in stainless steel: saves cost compared to barriques, avoid overwhelming the delicate aromas.
Barrel ageing: gentle oxidation, adding complexity.
Micro-oxygenation: to prevent reduction and help to soften tannins.
High altitude:
▪ Temperature decreases by about 0.6°C to 0.8°C (depending on latitude) per 100m increase in altitude above
sea level (asl)
▪ Diurnal temperature range increases with higher altitude asl. Lower night time temperature reduces
respiration rate, particularly of malic acid, of grapes.
▪ Ultraviolet radiation increases with increasing altitude asl. Increased photosynthesis: thicker skins, more
anthocyanins and polymerised tannins.
▪ Growing seasons shorten between 2 and 4 days per ~100m increase in altitude asl. Vine growth can still be
strong because of greater UV and higher diurnal temperature range
▪ Carbon dioxide uptake is lower at higher altitude asl, which limits photosynthesis. Vine growth may be
stunted.
▪ Risks such as frost, hail, winter hardiness, winds and higher production costs increase with higher altitude asl.
The 12 Key Factors to answer exam questions:
• Location: Latitude, Altitude (just remember altitudes >900 m), Water, Mountains, Currents, Aspect
• Weather: Wind, Precipitation, Frost, Hail, Sunshine, Fog, Humidity
• Climate: Precipitation, Sunshine, Temperature, Continentality, Humidity
• Viticulture: Site, Rootstock, Density, Pruning, Training, Canopy, Pests, Disease, Yield, Harvest
• Soil: Origin (solidified magma or lava / metamorphic / sedimentary), Texture (sand / silt / clay)
• Vinification: Crushing/destemming, Appasimento, Cold maceration, Chaptalisation, Acidification / De-acidification,
Fermentation, Yeast, Maceration, Temperature, Whole bunch, Lees, MLF, Maturation, Racking / fining / filtering,
Stabilisation, Blending, Bottling/vessel/closure
• Scale: Yield, Ha planted, HL produced, Volume exported, Volume bottled, Regional production, DOC production
• Legislation: PDO / PGI, Special Terms, History, Examples, Numbers
o Style: Sparkling (Dry, Medium, Sweet / Red, White, Rosé), White / Red / Rosé / Sweet (Light, Medium, Full),
Oak, flor, MLF, dried grapes
• History
• Current issues: Scandals, Effects, M & A (Mergers & Acquisitions), Legislation (new, changes), Brexit, Elections, Social
Media, Technology, Brands, Macro-economic changes, Journalists, Counterfeiting
Natural and human factors in vineyard and winery to mention in your answer:
Variety, budburst/ripening, acids, flavours
Climate
Aspect, soil (heat, drainage, water, nutrients, diurnal range)
Training
Canopy management (fungal diseases)
Density
Harvest (timing, manual/machine)
Grape reception, destemming, crushing, skin contact, pressing, clarification, fermentation, MLF
Yeast (ambient/cultured)
Fermentation (temperature, vessels)
Sedimentation/fining
Ageing (vessels, lees contact)
Packaging, closure
Bottle ageing
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