final study guide for Cardiopulmonary,
Anatomy, Physiology & Pathology Latest
Updated
Identify the major landmarks of the thorax, particularly those that identify the location of
the bifurcation of the trachea. (Angle of Louise, rib demarcations for hemi diaphragms
and lung borders) - ANS-Angle of Louis (sternal angle). Location of the following 4
structures.
a. Carina
b. 2nd rib
c. 4-5 vertebrae
d. Bifurcation of the trachea - right main stem is bigger and branches at a less acute
angle. Aspirated objects usually enter right lung middle or lower lobe.
Mediastinum~~~The structures that occupy the space between the lungs form a
partition, the largest structure being the heart.
Respiratory Apparatus~~~The structures that consists of the oral and nasal cavities in
the head; the pharynx, larynx, and trachea in neck; and the trachea, bronchial tree, and
lungs within the thorax.
Trachea~~~A 4 to 5 inch long structure with a diameter of 1 inch that is the first aspect
of the Bronchial Tree.
Tracheal Cartilages~~~The C-shaped structures that surround the trachea that except
on the posterior side that keep the lumen of the trachea open. These structures are
conected by fibroelastic tissue and smooth muscle fibers.
Bronchial Trees~~~The part of the trachea that divides into left and right Primary
Bronchi at about the Sternal Angle.
Carina~~~The inferior aspect of where the trachea divides into Primary Bronchi. The
structure is the most sensitive aspect of the respiratory apparatus and produces the
coughing reflex.
Bronchus~~~The first level of division in the Bronchial Tree that contains the Primary
Bronchus, Secondary (Lobar) Bonchus, and the Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchus.
Bronchiole~~~The second level of division in the Bronchial Tree that contains the
Bronchiole and Terminal (Respiratory) Bronchiole.
,Alveolar Portion~~~The third and last layer of division in the Bronchial Tree that
contains the Alveolar Duct, Alveolar Sac, and the Alveolus.
Primary Bronchi~~~The right and left 1 inch structures that are formed after the trachea
bifurcates. The left structure is longer than the right by about an i
Identify the specialized cells that are found in the lung. (i.e. macrophages, Type I and II
pneumocytes) - ANS-Pseudostratified ciliated columnar cells~~~extend to respiratory
bronchioles
macrophages~~~clear debris in alveoli
goblet cells~~~extend to bronchi
Type I cells~~~squamous
Type I cells~~~line alveoli, 97% of surface, thin for diffusion
Type II cells~~~cubioidal and clustered
Type II cells~~~secrete surfactant
Type II cells~~~precursors to type I and other type II cells
Type II cells~~~proliferate during lung damage
Clara cells~~~nonciliated; columnar w/ secretory granules
Clara cells~~~secrete component of surfactant; degrade toxins
Clara cells~~~act as reserve cells
Describe the structure of the tracheobronchial tree including the names of the
descending airways, their basic structure and the presence or absence of cartilage
and/or alveoli. - ANS-main = primary bronchi - The thin-walled, cartilaginous tubes, the
first branches (right and left) of the trachea, which carry air to the lungs; their walls
consist of a pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium, a loose fibrous connective
tissue submucosa with submucosal glands, O-shaped hyaline cartilage rings, and
smooth muscle.
lobar bronchi = secondary bronchi - The thin-walled, cartilaginous tubes, the first
branches of the main = primary bronchi, which carry air to the individual lobes of the
lungs; their walls consist of a pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium, a loose
fibrous connective tissue submucosa thrown into irregular folds with submucosal
glands, O-shaped hyaline cartilage rings, and smooth muscle; as the diameter of the
bronchi decreases the size of the cartilage cross-sections also decreases.
segmental bronchi = tertiary bronchi - The thin-walled, cartilaginous tubes, the first
branches of the lobar = secondary bronchi, which carry air to the ~ten
bronchopulmonary segments of each lung; their walls consist of a pseudostratified
columnar ciliated epithelium, a loose elastic connective tissue submucosa thrown into
irregular folds with submucosal glands, O-shaped hyaline cartilage rings, some diffuse
lymphatic tissue and smooth muscle; as the diameter of the bronchi decreases the size
of the cartilage cross-sections also decreases.
,interlobular bronchi - The thin-walled, cartilaginous tubes, the first branches of the
segmental = tertiary bronchi, which carry air to the lobules of each bronchopulmonary
segments of each lung; their walls consist of a pseudostratified columnar ciliated
epithelium, a loose elastic connective tissue submucosa thrown into irregular folds with
submucosal glands, O-shaped hyaline cartilage rings, some diffuse lymphatic tissue
and smooth muscle; as the diameter of
Identify which airways are conducting and which are respiratory zones. - ANS-
(conducting zones)nose/mouth → pharynx → larynx → trachea → main = primary
bronchi → lobar bronchi = secondary bronchi → segmental bronchi = tertiary bronchi →
bronchioles → terminal bronchioles →(respiratory zones) respiratory bronchioles* →
alveolar sacs* → alveoli*
Identify the function and location of the pleura. - ANS-membrane that lines each lung
and the wall of the chest cavity. The pleura serves an important role in lung function in
that it acts as a cushion for the lungs and allows for smooth movement of the lungs
within the chest cavity. The pleura secretes a small amount of fluid that works like a
lubricant to aid in the movement of the lungs. When excessive fluid begins to
accumulate in the pleural cavity, the result is a pleural effusion. This can cause difficulty
breathing, wheezing, and chest pain.
Identify the primary function of the lung and distinguish between ventilation and
internal/external respiration. - ANS-Pulmonary ventilation is the movement of air into
and out of the lungs (breathing).
External respiration is the exchange of O2 (loading) and CO2 (unloading) between
blood and alveoli (air sacs).
Transport of respiratory gases between lungs and tissues.
Internal respiration is gas exchange between blood and tissue cells.
Identify the major structures of the heart and trace blood flow through the heart and
great vessels. - ANS-All blood enters the right side of the heart through two veins: The
Superior Vena Cava and the Inferior Vena Cava. The Superior Vena Cava collects
blood from the upper half of the body. The Inferior Vena Cava collects blood from the
lower half of the body. Blood leaves the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava and enters the
Right Atrium. When the Right Atrium contracts, the blood goes through the Right AV
Value and into the Right Ventricle. When the Right Ventricle contracts, blood is pumped
through the Pulmonary Valve into the Pulmonary Artery and into the lungs where it picks
up oxygen. Blood now returns to the heart from the lungs by way of the Pulmonary
Veins and goes into the Left Atrium. When the Left Atrium contracts, blood travels
through the Left AV valve and into the Left Ventricle. The Left Ventricle is a very
important chamber that pumps blood through the Aortic Valve and into the Aorta. The
Aorta is the main artery of the body. It receives all the blood that the heart has pumped
out and distributes it to the rest of the body.
Identify the structures in the mediastinum. - ANS-trachea
esophagus
, great vessels
the arch of the aorta
thoracic portions of the left common carotid and the left subclavian arteries;
Veins
the innominate veins and the upper half of the superior vena cava;
the left highest intercostal vein
thymus
phrenic and vagus nerves and left recurrent nerves
thoracic duct
some lymph glands
Heart
Pericardium
Ascending Aorta
Lower half of Superior Vena cava
Trachea
Main bronchi
Lymph nodes
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary veins
Phrenic nerve
Identify and use the Bohr equation to calculate dead space ratio and evaluate results as
to meeting normal value. - ANS-Vd/Vt = PaCO2-PeCo2/PaCO2
It is the total dead space (the volume of the lungs that doesn't participate in gas
exchange)
In normal lungs, physiologic dead space is approximately equal to anatomic dead
space, but when there are V/Q defects, it is greater than anatomic dead space(150ml)
Explain the factors that affect the rate of diffusion of a gas in plasma. - ANS-Surface
Area- The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the available surface area.
Concentration Gradient- The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the concentration
gradient of the diffusing substance.
Membrane Thickness- The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the thickness of
the membrane.
Diffusion Distance- Diffusion is most rapid over short distance
Identify which respiratory gas is more soluable and which diffuses at a faster rate. -
ANS-CO2 is 20x more soluble in plasma and alveolar fluid it diffuses out at the same
rate.
Explain the effect on gas diffusion caused by a diseased A/C membrane and also the
change caused by an increase in heart rate and/or cardiac output. - ANS-Pulmonary
Shunting
True Shunt
Anatomy, Physiology & Pathology Latest
Updated
Identify the major landmarks of the thorax, particularly those that identify the location of
the bifurcation of the trachea. (Angle of Louise, rib demarcations for hemi diaphragms
and lung borders) - ANS-Angle of Louis (sternal angle). Location of the following 4
structures.
a. Carina
b. 2nd rib
c. 4-5 vertebrae
d. Bifurcation of the trachea - right main stem is bigger and branches at a less acute
angle. Aspirated objects usually enter right lung middle or lower lobe.
Mediastinum~~~The structures that occupy the space between the lungs form a
partition, the largest structure being the heart.
Respiratory Apparatus~~~The structures that consists of the oral and nasal cavities in
the head; the pharynx, larynx, and trachea in neck; and the trachea, bronchial tree, and
lungs within the thorax.
Trachea~~~A 4 to 5 inch long structure with a diameter of 1 inch that is the first aspect
of the Bronchial Tree.
Tracheal Cartilages~~~The C-shaped structures that surround the trachea that except
on the posterior side that keep the lumen of the trachea open. These structures are
conected by fibroelastic tissue and smooth muscle fibers.
Bronchial Trees~~~The part of the trachea that divides into left and right Primary
Bronchi at about the Sternal Angle.
Carina~~~The inferior aspect of where the trachea divides into Primary Bronchi. The
structure is the most sensitive aspect of the respiratory apparatus and produces the
coughing reflex.
Bronchus~~~The first level of division in the Bronchial Tree that contains the Primary
Bronchus, Secondary (Lobar) Bonchus, and the Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchus.
Bronchiole~~~The second level of division in the Bronchial Tree that contains the
Bronchiole and Terminal (Respiratory) Bronchiole.
,Alveolar Portion~~~The third and last layer of division in the Bronchial Tree that
contains the Alveolar Duct, Alveolar Sac, and the Alveolus.
Primary Bronchi~~~The right and left 1 inch structures that are formed after the trachea
bifurcates. The left structure is longer than the right by about an i
Identify the specialized cells that are found in the lung. (i.e. macrophages, Type I and II
pneumocytes) - ANS-Pseudostratified ciliated columnar cells~~~extend to respiratory
bronchioles
macrophages~~~clear debris in alveoli
goblet cells~~~extend to bronchi
Type I cells~~~squamous
Type I cells~~~line alveoli, 97% of surface, thin for diffusion
Type II cells~~~cubioidal and clustered
Type II cells~~~secrete surfactant
Type II cells~~~precursors to type I and other type II cells
Type II cells~~~proliferate during lung damage
Clara cells~~~nonciliated; columnar w/ secretory granules
Clara cells~~~secrete component of surfactant; degrade toxins
Clara cells~~~act as reserve cells
Describe the structure of the tracheobronchial tree including the names of the
descending airways, their basic structure and the presence or absence of cartilage
and/or alveoli. - ANS-main = primary bronchi - The thin-walled, cartilaginous tubes, the
first branches (right and left) of the trachea, which carry air to the lungs; their walls
consist of a pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium, a loose fibrous connective
tissue submucosa with submucosal glands, O-shaped hyaline cartilage rings, and
smooth muscle.
lobar bronchi = secondary bronchi - The thin-walled, cartilaginous tubes, the first
branches of the main = primary bronchi, which carry air to the individual lobes of the
lungs; their walls consist of a pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium, a loose
fibrous connective tissue submucosa thrown into irregular folds with submucosal
glands, O-shaped hyaline cartilage rings, and smooth muscle; as the diameter of the
bronchi decreases the size of the cartilage cross-sections also decreases.
segmental bronchi = tertiary bronchi - The thin-walled, cartilaginous tubes, the first
branches of the lobar = secondary bronchi, which carry air to the ~ten
bronchopulmonary segments of each lung; their walls consist of a pseudostratified
columnar ciliated epithelium, a loose elastic connective tissue submucosa thrown into
irregular folds with submucosal glands, O-shaped hyaline cartilage rings, some diffuse
lymphatic tissue and smooth muscle; as the diameter of the bronchi decreases the size
of the cartilage cross-sections also decreases.
,interlobular bronchi - The thin-walled, cartilaginous tubes, the first branches of the
segmental = tertiary bronchi, which carry air to the lobules of each bronchopulmonary
segments of each lung; their walls consist of a pseudostratified columnar ciliated
epithelium, a loose elastic connective tissue submucosa thrown into irregular folds with
submucosal glands, O-shaped hyaline cartilage rings, some diffuse lymphatic tissue
and smooth muscle; as the diameter of
Identify which airways are conducting and which are respiratory zones. - ANS-
(conducting zones)nose/mouth → pharynx → larynx → trachea → main = primary
bronchi → lobar bronchi = secondary bronchi → segmental bronchi = tertiary bronchi →
bronchioles → terminal bronchioles →(respiratory zones) respiratory bronchioles* →
alveolar sacs* → alveoli*
Identify the function and location of the pleura. - ANS-membrane that lines each lung
and the wall of the chest cavity. The pleura serves an important role in lung function in
that it acts as a cushion for the lungs and allows for smooth movement of the lungs
within the chest cavity. The pleura secretes a small amount of fluid that works like a
lubricant to aid in the movement of the lungs. When excessive fluid begins to
accumulate in the pleural cavity, the result is a pleural effusion. This can cause difficulty
breathing, wheezing, and chest pain.
Identify the primary function of the lung and distinguish between ventilation and
internal/external respiration. - ANS-Pulmonary ventilation is the movement of air into
and out of the lungs (breathing).
External respiration is the exchange of O2 (loading) and CO2 (unloading) between
blood and alveoli (air sacs).
Transport of respiratory gases between lungs and tissues.
Internal respiration is gas exchange between blood and tissue cells.
Identify the major structures of the heart and trace blood flow through the heart and
great vessels. - ANS-All blood enters the right side of the heart through two veins: The
Superior Vena Cava and the Inferior Vena Cava. The Superior Vena Cava collects
blood from the upper half of the body. The Inferior Vena Cava collects blood from the
lower half of the body. Blood leaves the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava and enters the
Right Atrium. When the Right Atrium contracts, the blood goes through the Right AV
Value and into the Right Ventricle. When the Right Ventricle contracts, blood is pumped
through the Pulmonary Valve into the Pulmonary Artery and into the lungs where it picks
up oxygen. Blood now returns to the heart from the lungs by way of the Pulmonary
Veins and goes into the Left Atrium. When the Left Atrium contracts, blood travels
through the Left AV valve and into the Left Ventricle. The Left Ventricle is a very
important chamber that pumps blood through the Aortic Valve and into the Aorta. The
Aorta is the main artery of the body. It receives all the blood that the heart has pumped
out and distributes it to the rest of the body.
Identify the structures in the mediastinum. - ANS-trachea
esophagus
, great vessels
the arch of the aorta
thoracic portions of the left common carotid and the left subclavian arteries;
Veins
the innominate veins and the upper half of the superior vena cava;
the left highest intercostal vein
thymus
phrenic and vagus nerves and left recurrent nerves
thoracic duct
some lymph glands
Heart
Pericardium
Ascending Aorta
Lower half of Superior Vena cava
Trachea
Main bronchi
Lymph nodes
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary veins
Phrenic nerve
Identify and use the Bohr equation to calculate dead space ratio and evaluate results as
to meeting normal value. - ANS-Vd/Vt = PaCO2-PeCo2/PaCO2
It is the total dead space (the volume of the lungs that doesn't participate in gas
exchange)
In normal lungs, physiologic dead space is approximately equal to anatomic dead
space, but when there are V/Q defects, it is greater than anatomic dead space(150ml)
Explain the factors that affect the rate of diffusion of a gas in plasma. - ANS-Surface
Area- The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the available surface area.
Concentration Gradient- The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the concentration
gradient of the diffusing substance.
Membrane Thickness- The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the thickness of
the membrane.
Diffusion Distance- Diffusion is most rapid over short distance
Identify which respiratory gas is more soluable and which diffuses at a faster rate. -
ANS-CO2 is 20x more soluble in plasma and alveolar fluid it diffuses out at the same
rate.
Explain the effect on gas diffusion caused by a diseased A/C membrane and also the
change caused by an increase in heart rate and/or cardiac output. - ANS-Pulmonary
Shunting
True Shunt
