RIO BIO 202 EXAM 2 MANUAL 2025/2026 QUESTIONS
WITH ANSWERS GRADED A+
✔✔stomach pH - ✔✔extremely acidic (pH 1.5-3.5 from HCl). this is crucial for pepsin
activation, and denaturing proteins and plant food walls.
✔✔controls of gastric juice production - ✔✔3L released daily, with neural controls, and
hormonal controls from acetylcholine, gastrin, and histamine
✔✔phases in gastric juice production - ✔✔cephalic, gastric, intestinal
✔✔cephalic phase - ✔✔a few minutes long, triggered by smell, taste, sight or food,
occurs before food enters the stomach, vagus nerve
✔✔gastric phase - ✔✔once food reaches the stomach, 3-4 hours long, reflexes feed
back to medulla and pons, proteins lower acidity, causing more HCl release.
✔✔intestinal phase - ✔✔begins with duodenum filling, which causes gastrin release.
this is brief. chyme triggers neural and hormonal signals to make the stomach stop
producing juice.
✔✔salivary amylase - ✔✔acts on carbs, turns polysaccharides into oliogosaccharides
and disaccharieds
✔✔pancreatic amylase - ✔✔acts on carbs in small intestine, turns polysaccharides into
oligosaccharides and disaccharides
✔✔brush border enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxpeptidase) - ✔✔act on
disaccharides in small intestine to create sugars (glucose, lactose, etc)
✔✔pepsin - ✔✔acts in the stomach in presence of HCl, turns proteins into large
polypeptides
✔✔pancreatic enzymes - ✔✔act on proteins in the small intestine, turns large
polypeptides into small polypeptides and peptides
✔✔brush border enzymes (aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase, dipeptidase) - ✔✔act on
proteins in small intestine, turn small polypeptides into small peptides and amino acids
✔✔bile - ✔✔emulsifies fats in small intestine using salts
✔✔pancreatic lipase - ✔✔acts in small intestine turning emulsified fats into
monoglycerides, glycerol, and fatty acids
, ✔✔pancreatic ribonuclease & deoxyribonuclease - ✔✔acts on nucleic acids in the small
intestine, turning them into pentose sugars, nitrogen bases, and phosphate ions
✔✔brush border enzymes (nucleosidases & phosphatases) - ✔✔acts on nucleic acids
in small intestine, turning them into pentose sugars, nitrogen bases, and phosphate
ions.
✔✔breakdown of carbs creates - ✔✔sugars
✔✔breakdown of proteins creates - ✔✔amino acids
✔✔breakdown of fats creates - ✔✔monoglycerides, glycerol, fatty acids
✔✔breakdown of nucleic acids - ✔✔pentose sugars, nitrogen bases, phosphate ions
✔✔kidney blood flow - ✔✔renal artery, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries, arcuate
arteries, cortical radiate arteries, afferent arterioles, cortical radiate veins, arcuate veins,
interlobar veins, lobar veins.
✔✔functional kidney unit - ✔✔nephron (85% are cortical, and 15% are medullary)
✔✔pathway of glomeral capsule to urethra - ✔✔glomerular capsule (corpuscle & renal
tubule), proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting
tubule, papillary duct, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra
✔✔proximal convoluted tube - ✔✔in cortex, elaborately coiled, cuboidal epithelial cells
with large mitochondrion, dense microvilli, location of reabsorption from filtrate
✔✔nephron loop - ✔✔descends into medulla, cuboidal cells in thick areas, and simple
squamous cells in thin areas
✔✔distal convoluted tubule - ✔✔cuboidal cells confined to the cortex, thinner than PCT
cells but lack microvilli
✔✔collecting ducts - ✔✔contain principle (numerous, with sparse microvilli that maintain
body's water and salt balance) and intercalated cells (cuboidal with dense microvilli).
collecting ducts run dow the medullary pyramids
✔✔nephron capillary beds - ✔✔high pressure capillary beds where 99% of fluid is
reabsorbed
✔✔filtration - ✔✔passive process where a portion of blood passes from the glomerular
bed into the glomerular capsule, the filtrate then enters the proximal convoluted tubule.
WITH ANSWERS GRADED A+
✔✔stomach pH - ✔✔extremely acidic (pH 1.5-3.5 from HCl). this is crucial for pepsin
activation, and denaturing proteins and plant food walls.
✔✔controls of gastric juice production - ✔✔3L released daily, with neural controls, and
hormonal controls from acetylcholine, gastrin, and histamine
✔✔phases in gastric juice production - ✔✔cephalic, gastric, intestinal
✔✔cephalic phase - ✔✔a few minutes long, triggered by smell, taste, sight or food,
occurs before food enters the stomach, vagus nerve
✔✔gastric phase - ✔✔once food reaches the stomach, 3-4 hours long, reflexes feed
back to medulla and pons, proteins lower acidity, causing more HCl release.
✔✔intestinal phase - ✔✔begins with duodenum filling, which causes gastrin release.
this is brief. chyme triggers neural and hormonal signals to make the stomach stop
producing juice.
✔✔salivary amylase - ✔✔acts on carbs, turns polysaccharides into oliogosaccharides
and disaccharieds
✔✔pancreatic amylase - ✔✔acts on carbs in small intestine, turns polysaccharides into
oligosaccharides and disaccharides
✔✔brush border enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxpeptidase) - ✔✔act on
disaccharides in small intestine to create sugars (glucose, lactose, etc)
✔✔pepsin - ✔✔acts in the stomach in presence of HCl, turns proteins into large
polypeptides
✔✔pancreatic enzymes - ✔✔act on proteins in the small intestine, turns large
polypeptides into small polypeptides and peptides
✔✔brush border enzymes (aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase, dipeptidase) - ✔✔act on
proteins in small intestine, turn small polypeptides into small peptides and amino acids
✔✔bile - ✔✔emulsifies fats in small intestine using salts
✔✔pancreatic lipase - ✔✔acts in small intestine turning emulsified fats into
monoglycerides, glycerol, and fatty acids
, ✔✔pancreatic ribonuclease & deoxyribonuclease - ✔✔acts on nucleic acids in the small
intestine, turning them into pentose sugars, nitrogen bases, and phosphate ions
✔✔brush border enzymes (nucleosidases & phosphatases) - ✔✔acts on nucleic acids
in small intestine, turning them into pentose sugars, nitrogen bases, and phosphate
ions.
✔✔breakdown of carbs creates - ✔✔sugars
✔✔breakdown of proteins creates - ✔✔amino acids
✔✔breakdown of fats creates - ✔✔monoglycerides, glycerol, fatty acids
✔✔breakdown of nucleic acids - ✔✔pentose sugars, nitrogen bases, phosphate ions
✔✔kidney blood flow - ✔✔renal artery, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries, arcuate
arteries, cortical radiate arteries, afferent arterioles, cortical radiate veins, arcuate veins,
interlobar veins, lobar veins.
✔✔functional kidney unit - ✔✔nephron (85% are cortical, and 15% are medullary)
✔✔pathway of glomeral capsule to urethra - ✔✔glomerular capsule (corpuscle & renal
tubule), proximal convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting
tubule, papillary duct, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra
✔✔proximal convoluted tube - ✔✔in cortex, elaborately coiled, cuboidal epithelial cells
with large mitochondrion, dense microvilli, location of reabsorption from filtrate
✔✔nephron loop - ✔✔descends into medulla, cuboidal cells in thick areas, and simple
squamous cells in thin areas
✔✔distal convoluted tubule - ✔✔cuboidal cells confined to the cortex, thinner than PCT
cells but lack microvilli
✔✔collecting ducts - ✔✔contain principle (numerous, with sparse microvilli that maintain
body's water and salt balance) and intercalated cells (cuboidal with dense microvilli).
collecting ducts run dow the medullary pyramids
✔✔nephron capillary beds - ✔✔high pressure capillary beds where 99% of fluid is
reabsorbed
✔✔filtration - ✔✔passive process where a portion of blood passes from the glomerular
bed into the glomerular capsule, the filtrate then enters the proximal convoluted tubule.
