Women's Movements: Beginning
Context
Earlier Women's Protests
1. Simone de Beauvoir: In The Second Sex (1949), the French philosopher & feminist argued that women are seen as "the Other" and forced into inferior roles by
society. She advocated for women to strive for true freedom despite men's opinions
2. Germaine Greer: In The Female Eunuch, the Australian feminist criticised English culture for being male-centered and urged women to realise their full
potential.
Members of the Women's Movement
• Many different groups concerned with lack of gender equality.
• Some student involvement
• Different groups differed in methods and aims, most importantly NOW and more radical strands in the Women's Liberation Movement
Context for Emergence
- Their services were needed during war, protests and industry resulting in an escape from wifeliness, motherhood, housework, beautification and isolation.
1. Change in women's view after WW2
○ Turning point and catalyst that broke up old practices and behavior
2. Persistent inequality in law and in practice.
3. Increase in positive female role models inspired young women.
4. Double the number of working women in 1968 as in 1940 led to increased conversations about workplace inequality.
5. Experience gained in other protest movements like the CRM inspired Women's Movements. Women were also discriminated against and sexually harassed
during these movement
6. Feminine mystique.
Economic Inequality in 1960s
• Women were half of the workforce, but 95% of company managers and 88% of technical workers were male
• Women made up only 4% of lawyers and 7% of doctors.
• Women could lose their jobs after marriage and only 30% of mothers had paid work in 1960.
• Pay inequality: Earned 50-60% of men's wages for the same work.
• Unpaid work: Seen as working a double shift because women did 79% of unpaid family work.
- Liberal women targeted these problems by calling for an Equal Rights Amendment.
Growth of the Movement
Feminine Mystique (Betty Friedan) - 1963
• Post WW2, there was a rush to marry and have children. Women were expected to stay home (and other issues mentioned above), the attitude of women
began to change in the 1960s and this new attitude was partly inspired by the Feminine Mystique.
• The Feminine Mystique is a book credited for sparking second wave of feminism in the US.
• The book stressed that women's lives had become focused on their families and were determined by men. It suggested that an ingrained set of accepted
beliefs made women belief that happiness was secured from being a wife/mother, but in reality, the generation of women felt trapped and unhappy not
fulfilled.
• The book focused on dissatisfied and disillusioned middle class white women feeling bored, undervalued and depressed as home-makers.
• Called the US middle class home 'a comfortable concentration camp' for women.
• Friedan still believed in a traditional family, just aimed for a better quality of life
• Friedan's solution: Get further education, get more involved in work & secure an identity separate from husband and children. Also inspired demands for
equal rights by undervalued women.
• Impact: Book became extremely popular.
Government Action and Response (Extent of Success)
• Presidential Commission on the Status of Women set up by Kennedy.
- Congresswoman Martha Griffiths: Argued new CRA should also outlaw sexual discrimination.
→ Included in Title Vll in CRA 1964 (but not enforced in practice).
• 1963: Equal Pay Act passed
- Prohibited employers from paying different wages to men and women working under similar conditions with the same level of skill, effort and
responsibility.
- Esther Peterson: As the highest-ranking woman in the Kennedy administration, she led the campaign to pass the act as she submitted a draft bill of it
to Congress on behalf of the Kennedy administration..
• NOW set up by members of the Kennedy Commission as government did not enforce Title Vll
CRM and SDS: Reasons for Late 1960s Growth
• Women in the CRM were excluded when SNCC and CORE began to exclude white members (1966)
• Their involvement in the CRM showed women how legal change could be secured from pressuring the government.
• Exposure in CRM inspired women to fight for gender equality too.
• Black female activists inspired other women to become politically active in securing equality. E.g. Fannie Lou Hamer played a prominent role in the CRM.
• Women were not given credit for participating in CRM campaigns.
• Women became disenchanted in sexist CRM and BPM because they were often overlooked in decision making and campaign organising.
• SDS: Woman member summed up female role: "men made the decisions while women made the coffee".
→ Played a large role in women aiming to secure total liberation (radical women) and made women form their own groups.
→ Thousands of women's groups set up across country, 2 main groupings were divided by aims and methods.
..
Context
Earlier Women's Protests
1. Simone de Beauvoir: In The Second Sex (1949), the French philosopher & feminist argued that women are seen as "the Other" and forced into inferior roles by
society. She advocated for women to strive for true freedom despite men's opinions
2. Germaine Greer: In The Female Eunuch, the Australian feminist criticised English culture for being male-centered and urged women to realise their full
potential.
Members of the Women's Movement
• Many different groups concerned with lack of gender equality.
• Some student involvement
• Different groups differed in methods and aims, most importantly NOW and more radical strands in the Women's Liberation Movement
Context for Emergence
- Their services were needed during war, protests and industry resulting in an escape from wifeliness, motherhood, housework, beautification and isolation.
1. Change in women's view after WW2
○ Turning point and catalyst that broke up old practices and behavior
2. Persistent inequality in law and in practice.
3. Increase in positive female role models inspired young women.
4. Double the number of working women in 1968 as in 1940 led to increased conversations about workplace inequality.
5. Experience gained in other protest movements like the CRM inspired Women's Movements. Women were also discriminated against and sexually harassed
during these movement
6. Feminine mystique.
Economic Inequality in 1960s
• Women were half of the workforce, but 95% of company managers and 88% of technical workers were male
• Women made up only 4% of lawyers and 7% of doctors.
• Women could lose their jobs after marriage and only 30% of mothers had paid work in 1960.
• Pay inequality: Earned 50-60% of men's wages for the same work.
• Unpaid work: Seen as working a double shift because women did 79% of unpaid family work.
- Liberal women targeted these problems by calling for an Equal Rights Amendment.
Growth of the Movement
Feminine Mystique (Betty Friedan) - 1963
• Post WW2, there was a rush to marry and have children. Women were expected to stay home (and other issues mentioned above), the attitude of women
began to change in the 1960s and this new attitude was partly inspired by the Feminine Mystique.
• The Feminine Mystique is a book credited for sparking second wave of feminism in the US.
• The book stressed that women's lives had become focused on their families and were determined by men. It suggested that an ingrained set of accepted
beliefs made women belief that happiness was secured from being a wife/mother, but in reality, the generation of women felt trapped and unhappy not
fulfilled.
• The book focused on dissatisfied and disillusioned middle class white women feeling bored, undervalued and depressed as home-makers.
• Called the US middle class home 'a comfortable concentration camp' for women.
• Friedan still believed in a traditional family, just aimed for a better quality of life
• Friedan's solution: Get further education, get more involved in work & secure an identity separate from husband and children. Also inspired demands for
equal rights by undervalued women.
• Impact: Book became extremely popular.
Government Action and Response (Extent of Success)
• Presidential Commission on the Status of Women set up by Kennedy.
- Congresswoman Martha Griffiths: Argued new CRA should also outlaw sexual discrimination.
→ Included in Title Vll in CRA 1964 (but not enforced in practice).
• 1963: Equal Pay Act passed
- Prohibited employers from paying different wages to men and women working under similar conditions with the same level of skill, effort and
responsibility.
- Esther Peterson: As the highest-ranking woman in the Kennedy administration, she led the campaign to pass the act as she submitted a draft bill of it
to Congress on behalf of the Kennedy administration..
• NOW set up by members of the Kennedy Commission as government did not enforce Title Vll
CRM and SDS: Reasons for Late 1960s Growth
• Women in the CRM were excluded when SNCC and CORE began to exclude white members (1966)
• Their involvement in the CRM showed women how legal change could be secured from pressuring the government.
• Exposure in CRM inspired women to fight for gender equality too.
• Black female activists inspired other women to become politically active in securing equality. E.g. Fannie Lou Hamer played a prominent role in the CRM.
• Women were not given credit for participating in CRM campaigns.
• Women became disenchanted in sexist CRM and BPM because they were often overlooked in decision making and campaign organising.
• SDS: Woman member summed up female role: "men made the decisions while women made the coffee".
→ Played a large role in women aiming to secure total liberation (radical women) and made women form their own groups.
→ Thousands of women's groups set up across country, 2 main groupings were divided by aims and methods.
..
