Abnormality
Statistical Infrequency: Behaviours outside the normal distribution, usually 3% of the population.
Not all behaviours are infrequent such as depression being in 10% and also some infrequencies such
as high IQ are positive. Although, good for measuring some illnesses.
Deviation From Social Norms: Behaviour that varies form acceptable customs of society. Considers
social dimensions of behaviour but are culture bound and change dramatically within decades.
People also regularly break these.
Failure to Function Adequately: Rosenham & Seligman said unable to cope with life; suffering,
maladaptive behaviour, uncongeniality, unpredictable, irrationality and violating social norms
making people uncomfortable. Allows for a degree of normality to be assessed against, abnormality
doesn’t always mean dysfunction and it is subjective who decides what is abnormal.
Deviation From Ideas Mental Health Criteria: Marie Jahoda said positive self-attitude, resistance to
stress, self-actualisation, autonomy, accurate perception of reality and adapting to the
environment/forming healthy relationships. It takes mental health in a positive approach but has
very over demanding criteria that no one meets all of and is very difficult to measure.
Depression
Diagnosis- Must cause the individual significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or
other areas of important functioning. Symptoms must not be due to substance abuse or another
disorder. 7.8% UK pop. 2021.
DSM-5 Categories- Major depressive disorder- this is severe but often short-term. Persistent
depressive disorder- long-term or recurring including sustained major depression. Disruptive mood
dysregulation disorder- childhood temper tantrums. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder- disruption to
mood prior to and/or during menstruation
Symptoms- Display at least 5 symptoms every day for at least 2 weeks. This includes either sadness,
loss of interest or loss of pleasure, depressed mood, Lack of interest/pleasure in all activities,
Significant weight change, Insomnia, Psychomotor agitation, Loss of energy, Feelings of
worthlessness, Diminished ability to think/ concentrate, Recurrent thoughts of death.
Behavioural Characteristics: Reduced activity/energy, Disrupted sleep/eating, Aggression and self-
harm. Cognitive Characteristics: Lowered Mood, Anger and Low Self-Esteem. Emotional
Characteristics: Poor concentration, dwelling on negatives constantly, black/white thinking
Depression Explanations (Behaviourism, Humanism)
Way you think rather than the problem- can overcome mental disorders by learning appropriate
cognitions. Based on internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, emotion and perception.
Biology like serotonin has also been said cause depression but this is a more Diathesis-Stress Model.
Beck’s Negative Triad 1967: Black/white thinking and attending to negative aspects is Faulty
Information Processing. Negative Self-Schemas instantly before information is interpreted. The
Negative Triad of Self-World-Future-Self. Clark & Beck 1999where cog. vulnerabilities were common
in the depressed and proceeded depression & Cohen 2019 adolescents showed cognitive
vulnerabilities predicted depression later on. Practical as can assess for prevention. It ignores anger,
hallucinations and delusions.
, Ellis’ ABC Model 1962: Patients base lives on irrational beliefs. Activating events caused by things
like failing a test which affect an individual’s Beliefs which result in a Consequence that is
depression, emotional/behavioural. Has application to CBT (REBT). Controversial to say the cause lies
within person and may make it worse, only explains reactive depression not endogenous depression.
Depression Treatment (CBT)
Break vicious cycles of thinking and focuses on ‘here and now’ problems. Looks to improve, not
looking at the past. Aims to get person to DIY to figure out self-help, usually based on BOTH ideas.
Cognitive Element: assess the problems and identify goals for a therapy plan and they must identify
where the irrational/- thoughts can be challenged.
Behavioural Element: work to change the thoughts 30-60 minutes weekly, 20 times and put
effective behaviours in place such as self-praise.
Becks Cognitive Therapy: Identify the thought about self, world and future. Challenge these
thoughts and test reality of them by doing homework as a ‘Client Scientist’ and recording positive
things. Evidence is used in future sessions to Disprove Negative Ideas. Subjective & can be derailed.
Ellis’ Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy: Extends to Activation Event, Beliefs, Consequences,
Dispute against thoughts and see a beneficial Effect on Behaviour.
Empirical Argument, is there evidence to support the belief. Does it logically follow facts, this is
Logical Argument.
BOTH- Behavioural Activation: Working with patient to decrease avoidance and isolation and to
increase mood and activity. Therapy helps this.
CBT is cost effective and prevent relapse, March 2007. Lewis & Lewis 2006 found CBT was as
effective as antidepressants in severe cases. Taylor 2008 found it significant for use in learning
difficulty people. Better when paired with drugs. Relapse rates in Shehzad 2017 were 53% within a
year for 439 clients. May not work for most severe cases or retarded people
OCD
Obsessive Thought -> Anxiety-> Compulsive Behaviour->Temporary Relief->Obsessive Thought.
DSM-5 Categories- OCD- Characterised by obsessions and/or compulsions. Trichotillomania-
Compulsive hair pulling. Excoriation Disorder- Compulsive skin picking. Hoarding Disorder-
Gathering possessions compulsively and the inability to part with it regardless. 1.3% UK op. 2021
Symptoms- Recurrent obsessions/compulsions, the person recognising that they are irrational and
distress caused by the thoughts. Anxiety & Depression symptoms also. Obsessions: A persistent
thought, idea or impulse- intrusive and causes anxiety. Experienced repeatedly. Compulsion: A
repetitive behaviour/thought that a person feels driven to perform in order to satisfy obsession.
Behavioural Characteristics- Compulsions Repetitive- Constantly washing hands etc. Compulsions
Reduce Anxiety- 10% of OCD sufferers have no obsessions but the compulsive behaviours in others
are performed to try and manage anxiety. Avoidance- Try to avoid situations that will trigger.
Cognitive Characteristics- Obsessive thoughts- 90% has this that recur over and over again
throughout the day. Cognitive coping strategies- To deal with their obsessions, this can help them
Statistical Infrequency: Behaviours outside the normal distribution, usually 3% of the population.
Not all behaviours are infrequent such as depression being in 10% and also some infrequencies such
as high IQ are positive. Although, good for measuring some illnesses.
Deviation From Social Norms: Behaviour that varies form acceptable customs of society. Considers
social dimensions of behaviour but are culture bound and change dramatically within decades.
People also regularly break these.
Failure to Function Adequately: Rosenham & Seligman said unable to cope with life; suffering,
maladaptive behaviour, uncongeniality, unpredictable, irrationality and violating social norms
making people uncomfortable. Allows for a degree of normality to be assessed against, abnormality
doesn’t always mean dysfunction and it is subjective who decides what is abnormal.
Deviation From Ideas Mental Health Criteria: Marie Jahoda said positive self-attitude, resistance to
stress, self-actualisation, autonomy, accurate perception of reality and adapting to the
environment/forming healthy relationships. It takes mental health in a positive approach but has
very over demanding criteria that no one meets all of and is very difficult to measure.
Depression
Diagnosis- Must cause the individual significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or
other areas of important functioning. Symptoms must not be due to substance abuse or another
disorder. 7.8% UK pop. 2021.
DSM-5 Categories- Major depressive disorder- this is severe but often short-term. Persistent
depressive disorder- long-term or recurring including sustained major depression. Disruptive mood
dysregulation disorder- childhood temper tantrums. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder- disruption to
mood prior to and/or during menstruation
Symptoms- Display at least 5 symptoms every day for at least 2 weeks. This includes either sadness,
loss of interest or loss of pleasure, depressed mood, Lack of interest/pleasure in all activities,
Significant weight change, Insomnia, Psychomotor agitation, Loss of energy, Feelings of
worthlessness, Diminished ability to think/ concentrate, Recurrent thoughts of death.
Behavioural Characteristics: Reduced activity/energy, Disrupted sleep/eating, Aggression and self-
harm. Cognitive Characteristics: Lowered Mood, Anger and Low Self-Esteem. Emotional
Characteristics: Poor concentration, dwelling on negatives constantly, black/white thinking
Depression Explanations (Behaviourism, Humanism)
Way you think rather than the problem- can overcome mental disorders by learning appropriate
cognitions. Based on internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, emotion and perception.
Biology like serotonin has also been said cause depression but this is a more Diathesis-Stress Model.
Beck’s Negative Triad 1967: Black/white thinking and attending to negative aspects is Faulty
Information Processing. Negative Self-Schemas instantly before information is interpreted. The
Negative Triad of Self-World-Future-Self. Clark & Beck 1999where cog. vulnerabilities were common
in the depressed and proceeded depression & Cohen 2019 adolescents showed cognitive
vulnerabilities predicted depression later on. Practical as can assess for prevention. It ignores anger,
hallucinations and delusions.
, Ellis’ ABC Model 1962: Patients base lives on irrational beliefs. Activating events caused by things
like failing a test which affect an individual’s Beliefs which result in a Consequence that is
depression, emotional/behavioural. Has application to CBT (REBT). Controversial to say the cause lies
within person and may make it worse, only explains reactive depression not endogenous depression.
Depression Treatment (CBT)
Break vicious cycles of thinking and focuses on ‘here and now’ problems. Looks to improve, not
looking at the past. Aims to get person to DIY to figure out self-help, usually based on BOTH ideas.
Cognitive Element: assess the problems and identify goals for a therapy plan and they must identify
where the irrational/- thoughts can be challenged.
Behavioural Element: work to change the thoughts 30-60 minutes weekly, 20 times and put
effective behaviours in place such as self-praise.
Becks Cognitive Therapy: Identify the thought about self, world and future. Challenge these
thoughts and test reality of them by doing homework as a ‘Client Scientist’ and recording positive
things. Evidence is used in future sessions to Disprove Negative Ideas. Subjective & can be derailed.
Ellis’ Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy: Extends to Activation Event, Beliefs, Consequences,
Dispute against thoughts and see a beneficial Effect on Behaviour.
Empirical Argument, is there evidence to support the belief. Does it logically follow facts, this is
Logical Argument.
BOTH- Behavioural Activation: Working with patient to decrease avoidance and isolation and to
increase mood and activity. Therapy helps this.
CBT is cost effective and prevent relapse, March 2007. Lewis & Lewis 2006 found CBT was as
effective as antidepressants in severe cases. Taylor 2008 found it significant for use in learning
difficulty people. Better when paired with drugs. Relapse rates in Shehzad 2017 were 53% within a
year for 439 clients. May not work for most severe cases or retarded people
OCD
Obsessive Thought -> Anxiety-> Compulsive Behaviour->Temporary Relief->Obsessive Thought.
DSM-5 Categories- OCD- Characterised by obsessions and/or compulsions. Trichotillomania-
Compulsive hair pulling. Excoriation Disorder- Compulsive skin picking. Hoarding Disorder-
Gathering possessions compulsively and the inability to part with it regardless. 1.3% UK op. 2021
Symptoms- Recurrent obsessions/compulsions, the person recognising that they are irrational and
distress caused by the thoughts. Anxiety & Depression symptoms also. Obsessions: A persistent
thought, idea or impulse- intrusive and causes anxiety. Experienced repeatedly. Compulsion: A
repetitive behaviour/thought that a person feels driven to perform in order to satisfy obsession.
Behavioural Characteristics- Compulsions Repetitive- Constantly washing hands etc. Compulsions
Reduce Anxiety- 10% of OCD sufferers have no obsessions but the compulsive behaviours in others
are performed to try and manage anxiety. Avoidance- Try to avoid situations that will trigger.
Cognitive Characteristics- Obsessive thoughts- 90% has this that recur over and over again
throughout the day. Cognitive coping strategies- To deal with their obsessions, this can help them
