MCRS exam 1
Week 1
● Knowledge can be based on: Non-scientific methods:
Opinions:
1.Authority-opinion of authority figures
2.Intuition/belief
3.Consensus- when the majority agrees (just because they agree that something is true, it
doesn’t mean it is)
We need evidence to support arguments.
Gathering evidence through observation (people not good at observing-selective
observation/bias):
4.Tenacity- general knowledge is based on it; "it's always done like this" is an example of
how to arrive at general knowledge. For example, when you wait for the elevator,
pressing the button is what you usually do, and also when it takes a while for the elevator
to arrive because that's what people always do.
5.Casual observation (selective perception)
6.Informal logic reasoning (logical inconsistencies)
Can’t rely on subjective opinions-we need systematic observation, free from bias, with
consistently applied logic (scientific method)
● Scientific methods: A systematic process of gathering information through observation
-increase our chances of coming up with valid explanations, evaluate the plausibility
-6 principles: (hypothesis needs to be)
1. Empirically testable- being able to collect evidence or observations, that will
either support or contradict the hypothesis
2. Replicability- we should be able to repeat the study with the same results
3. Objective- allowing others to repeat the study (shouldn’t matter who is
performing the study)
4. Transparent- publicly sharing all assumptions made in research and other
relevant information, how are concepts defined
5. Falsifiable-finding observations that can contradict our hypothesis (all prunes are
blue or purple
6. Logical consistency/or internally coherent-no internal contradiction affecting
research, conclusion also logically consistent
-never change a hypothesis after collecting data
● Scientific research is a systematic process of gathering information through observation
, -Empiricism=understanding through Observation
-if its empirical=it is based on social reality
-systematic and comulative=bulids on previous research and in search for patterns and
associations
● Research is a systematic process of posing questions, answering questions, demonstrating
that your results are valid and sharing your research
● Communication research is a systematic process of posing questions about human
communication, designing and implementing research that will answer those questions
● Researchers may use qualitative methods, quantitative methods, or both.
● Systematic claims:
1. Hypothesis is a systematic claim, a testable statement about reality that we test by
observing (reality) using empiricism as a scientific method. It should be
Empriricaly testable, Objective and Falsifiable
It is never 100% proven because it is generally impossible to examine all possible
cases for exceptions that would disprove it.
2. Theory (theoretical knowledge) is based on a supported hypothesis;
unsubstantiated guess
3. Observation is the building block of empirical science; useful when it can confirm
or contradict hypothesis
● World View I - human communication is objectively measurable and can be predicted
and generalized
-Uses a Nomothetic approach that deals with patterns and rules
-objective knowledge
-Quantitative research- measurement, numbers, testing theory
● World View II - human communication is subjective, and individualistic and must be
described as such; unpredictable
-Uses an Ideographic approach that deals with the uniqueness of subjects, objects, or
phenomena)
-Qualitative research that gathers theory, words, no measurement
● Philosophy of science:
1. Epistemology (how we know what we know)- how should communication be
understood/ what counts as knowledge/how should we acquire knowledge about
the world
2. Onotolgy- world around us/ nature of existence/ does attitude really exist / what is
real
● 2 scientific approaches:
1. Empirical-analytical: an objective approach,
-Falsification-statement that is not falsifiable needs exhaustive for all possibilities
to disprove it, refute- A giant white gorilla lives in the Himalayan mountains
, -Finding alternative explanations
-Nomothetic approach- World View 1
-In DEDUCTION phase
-Quantitative research- experiments and surveys
2. Empirical-interpretative- subjective approach
-Verification- tries to clarify ideas, confirm
-deals with meanings of words
-looks from participants' perspective
-Ideographic approach- World View 2/ communication is unique
-Qualitative research- interviews and focus groups
In the INDUCTION phase
Goals of Science Purpose of Knowledge
Universalistic (general) phenomena that Applied research (improve human
apply to all condition)-aimed at solving a problem
Often Particularistic, rarely Universalistic
Particularistic- phenomena that occur in Fundamental research-obtaining further
a specific setting knowledge; no immediate application
Often Universalistic, rarely Particularistic
(when research is done in a very specific
setting)
● Logical Positivism=meaningful (verifiable) statements about the world
1. Analytic statement- necessarily true; doesn’t depend on the state of the
world(definitions), verified with formal logic(not observation), a priori
2. Synthetic statement- depends on the state of the world(all cats are born with
tales), verified through observation, publicly accessible
Meaningless statements-ethics, metaphysics
Problem of induction-statements only confirmed, not varified
● Hypothetical conductive method: induction, deduction, falsifiability, replication
● Research design TREADWELL CHAPTER 9 SURVEYS
-Experimental-causal (affect)
-Correlational- cross-sectional and longitudinal (association)
● Empirical cycle- captures the proces sof coming up with hypothesis and testing against
empirical data
1. Observation- noticeable relations and questions; sparks a new idea for research
hypothesis; comes from previous research; preliminary research; making a
prediction
Week 1
● Knowledge can be based on: Non-scientific methods:
Opinions:
1.Authority-opinion of authority figures
2.Intuition/belief
3.Consensus- when the majority agrees (just because they agree that something is true, it
doesn’t mean it is)
We need evidence to support arguments.
Gathering evidence through observation (people not good at observing-selective
observation/bias):
4.Tenacity- general knowledge is based on it; "it's always done like this" is an example of
how to arrive at general knowledge. For example, when you wait for the elevator,
pressing the button is what you usually do, and also when it takes a while for the elevator
to arrive because that's what people always do.
5.Casual observation (selective perception)
6.Informal logic reasoning (logical inconsistencies)
Can’t rely on subjective opinions-we need systematic observation, free from bias, with
consistently applied logic (scientific method)
● Scientific methods: A systematic process of gathering information through observation
-increase our chances of coming up with valid explanations, evaluate the plausibility
-6 principles: (hypothesis needs to be)
1. Empirically testable- being able to collect evidence or observations, that will
either support or contradict the hypothesis
2. Replicability- we should be able to repeat the study with the same results
3. Objective- allowing others to repeat the study (shouldn’t matter who is
performing the study)
4. Transparent- publicly sharing all assumptions made in research and other
relevant information, how are concepts defined
5. Falsifiable-finding observations that can contradict our hypothesis (all prunes are
blue or purple
6. Logical consistency/or internally coherent-no internal contradiction affecting
research, conclusion also logically consistent
-never change a hypothesis after collecting data
● Scientific research is a systematic process of gathering information through observation
, -Empiricism=understanding through Observation
-if its empirical=it is based on social reality
-systematic and comulative=bulids on previous research and in search for patterns and
associations
● Research is a systematic process of posing questions, answering questions, demonstrating
that your results are valid and sharing your research
● Communication research is a systematic process of posing questions about human
communication, designing and implementing research that will answer those questions
● Researchers may use qualitative methods, quantitative methods, or both.
● Systematic claims:
1. Hypothesis is a systematic claim, a testable statement about reality that we test by
observing (reality) using empiricism as a scientific method. It should be
Empriricaly testable, Objective and Falsifiable
It is never 100% proven because it is generally impossible to examine all possible
cases for exceptions that would disprove it.
2. Theory (theoretical knowledge) is based on a supported hypothesis;
unsubstantiated guess
3. Observation is the building block of empirical science; useful when it can confirm
or contradict hypothesis
● World View I - human communication is objectively measurable and can be predicted
and generalized
-Uses a Nomothetic approach that deals with patterns and rules
-objective knowledge
-Quantitative research- measurement, numbers, testing theory
● World View II - human communication is subjective, and individualistic and must be
described as such; unpredictable
-Uses an Ideographic approach that deals with the uniqueness of subjects, objects, or
phenomena)
-Qualitative research that gathers theory, words, no measurement
● Philosophy of science:
1. Epistemology (how we know what we know)- how should communication be
understood/ what counts as knowledge/how should we acquire knowledge about
the world
2. Onotolgy- world around us/ nature of existence/ does attitude really exist / what is
real
● 2 scientific approaches:
1. Empirical-analytical: an objective approach,
-Falsification-statement that is not falsifiable needs exhaustive for all possibilities
to disprove it, refute- A giant white gorilla lives in the Himalayan mountains
, -Finding alternative explanations
-Nomothetic approach- World View 1
-In DEDUCTION phase
-Quantitative research- experiments and surveys
2. Empirical-interpretative- subjective approach
-Verification- tries to clarify ideas, confirm
-deals with meanings of words
-looks from participants' perspective
-Ideographic approach- World View 2/ communication is unique
-Qualitative research- interviews and focus groups
In the INDUCTION phase
Goals of Science Purpose of Knowledge
Universalistic (general) phenomena that Applied research (improve human
apply to all condition)-aimed at solving a problem
Often Particularistic, rarely Universalistic
Particularistic- phenomena that occur in Fundamental research-obtaining further
a specific setting knowledge; no immediate application
Often Universalistic, rarely Particularistic
(when research is done in a very specific
setting)
● Logical Positivism=meaningful (verifiable) statements about the world
1. Analytic statement- necessarily true; doesn’t depend on the state of the
world(definitions), verified with formal logic(not observation), a priori
2. Synthetic statement- depends on the state of the world(all cats are born with
tales), verified through observation, publicly accessible
Meaningless statements-ethics, metaphysics
Problem of induction-statements only confirmed, not varified
● Hypothetical conductive method: induction, deduction, falsifiability, replication
● Research design TREADWELL CHAPTER 9 SURVEYS
-Experimental-causal (affect)
-Correlational- cross-sectional and longitudinal (association)
● Empirical cycle- captures the proces sof coming up with hypothesis and testing against
empirical data
1. Observation- noticeable relations and questions; sparks a new idea for research
hypothesis; comes from previous research; preliminary research; making a
prediction
