Intelligence Questions And Answers

What are implicit theories - ANS Where individuals develop theories, beliefs and deeply held schemas about human attributes- intelligence is subject to this What sort of bias can implicit theories be linked to - ANS Unconscious bias- our implicit theories can come from places of prejudice and can develop unconsciously. What did Costa and Faria find regarding implicit theories and academic performance - ANS Found significant association between implicit theories and academic performance -those who viewed intelligence as malleable were more likely to have better grades overall -those who viewed intelligence as fixed still showed positive association but not to same extent as those with a malleable view MALLEABLE views of intelligence lead to higher motivation and attainment, FIXED views lead to lower motivation and attainment What is a layperson - ANS Refers to a non-expert or non-professional in a field- in this case in the field of intelligence. What did Sternberg, Conway, Ketron and Bernstein find to be laypersons behaviors characteristic of intelligence - ANS 1) Practical problem solving- effectively dealing with problems we face in everyday life 2) Verbal ability- expressing yourself effectively and with some eloquence 3) Social competence- to be accepted and fulfilled socially What did Sternberg find to be the 6 dimensions of layperson intelligence - ANS First 2 the same as previous study 1) practical problem solving 2) verbal ability 3) intellectual balance and integration 4) goal orientation and attainment 5) contextual intelligence 6) fluid thought Which philosophers impacted how intelligence is viewed in Western cultures - ANS Plato and Aristole What concept did Plato and Aristotle use to consider intelligence - ANS Concept of souls What were the 3 different types of souls that Plato and Aristotle considered - ANS Souls meaning beings with animation 1) Vegetative soul- linked to plants 2) Sensitive soul- linked to animals capable of movement 3) Intellectual soul- linked to humans What was the main factor involved in intelligence for Plato and Aristotle - ANS For them intelligence was simply the ability to reason No other factors such as memory etc were involved What were the 2 forms of reasoning used by Aristole and Plato - ANS Discursive reasoning- slow and deductive Intuitive reasoning- fast and not deductive What do Western implicit theories of intelligence emphasize - ANS -speed/depth of mental processing -verbal abilities -emphasis on learning -good memory -good cognitive skills Can see a link to individual reasoning What impacted how intelligence is viewed in Eastern cultures - ANS Confucius and Taoist writings What were the 5 factors of intelligence in Eastern cultures found by Yang and Sternberg - ANS 1) General cognitive factor intelligence- good ability for practical problem solving 2) Interpersonal intelligence 3) Intrapersonal intelligence 4) Intellectual self-assertion- e..g confident, aware of intelligence 5) Intellectual self-effacement- e.g. modest about this intellectual ability What do Eastern implicit theories of intelligence emphasize - ANS -similar ideas to Western cultures -BUT apply not to just the individual- extended to social, historical and spiritual aspects of everyday life Eastern cultures place more of an emphasis on social characteristics How can theories of intelligence in Western and Eastern cultures be explained - ANS Western cultures tend to be more individualistic- focus on primacy of individual Eastern cultures tend to be more collectivist- focus on collective nature of social obligation What aspects of intelligence tend to be similar cross-culturally in study comparing Chinese and Australian adults - ANS Willingness to think and observe Wide range of interests Independent thinking What aspects of intelligence tend to be different cross-culturally in study comparing Chinese and Australian adults - ANS Eastern culture- ability to learn, analytical thinking, sharp thinking and displaying confidence Western culture- logical reasoning and problem solving Differences tend to reflect emphasis of the culture (collectivist and individualist) What did study by Lim, Plucker and Im (2002) find when looking at if cross-cultural differences have been reduced in participants in Korea, which factor of intelligence did the Koreans value most - ANS Quite similar views on intelligence to those found within western cultures 1) social competence 2) problem solving 3) coping with novelty 4) self-management 5) practical competence Koreans valued the factor involving social competence and responsibility- still highlighting emphasis on the world around them Which are the 2 ways in which people formalized approaches to intellgence - ANS 1) developing theories 2) developing measures Which psychologist is explicitly linked to, and coined the term eugenics - ANS Galton What did Binet do in intelligence testing - ANS Developed a scale that was specifically aimed to be an education tool to support school children Developed Binet-Simon scale of intelligence and concept of mental age to compare age norms How did Alfred Binet view intelligence - ANS Highlighted bad critical thinking of his contemporaries -clear that intelligence was too complex to capture in 1 test or in a number -intelligence was not a single scalable entity -viewed it as malleable What were Binet's 3 cardinal principles in regards to his intelligence test- - ANS 1) test scores are for practical purposes- cannot explicitly be linked to intelligence 2) scale is a rough, empirical guide for identifying children who need support- cannot be used for ranking all children 3) low scores are an indication that support is needed not that a child is innately incapable Crucially he did not want his tool to be used to indefinitely label a person What did Goddard and Terman do with the Binet-Stanford scale of intelligence - ANS Brought Binet's scale to the US Revised the scale by adding new items, establishing new age norms Introduced standardization- need for representative samples to create norms Created the Stanford-Binet scale How is IQ calculated - ANS Mental age/chronological age x 100 What was the absence of critical thinking in how Goddard and Terman used Binet's scale - ANS Ignored Binet's cardinal principles -saw the scale as something that captured intelligence What was a big problem in early intelligence research - ANS There was no agreed consensus What was a problematic outcome from early intelligence research - ANS In the early 1900s, eugenics was a popular idea taken on board by many academics Policies influenced crimes by Nazis, and sterilization laws What were the problematic outcomes from the research by Goddard and Terman - ANS -used their ideas to influence American education policy arguing that schools needed to be segregated to train efficient workers -ableism and racism was a part of this- e.g. Terman believed African-Americans etc showed low intelligence using his measure In what year was an expert consensus reached about intelligence - ANS 1995 What does intelligence comprise of at 2 and 10 years old - ANS 2- verbal ability, motor coordination, ability to learn and awareness of people 10- verbal ability, learning, problem solving, reasoning and creativity What did Yussen and Kane argue older students categorize intelligence into - ANS Three aspects of intelligence- academic, social and physical intelligence Younger students do not differentiate these and think of intelligence as one dimensional What are the 2 main reasons for a shift in young people's perceptions of intelligence in younger and older students - ANS 1) older students have matured cognitively- as go through school have number of cumulative experiences regarding own intelligence thus understanding of intelligence becomes more complex 2) older students have undergone socialization What is meant by the cognitive elite - ANS A social group of people with high intelligence with increasingly high chance of succeeding in life What is meant by test validity - ANS The extent to which a test accurately measures what it is supposed to measure- in this case do intelligence tests actually measure intelligence How can internal reliability be used to assess testing - ANS If different items within a test correlate positively with one another they measure the same construct What is meant by test-retest reliability - ANS Reliability of a test over time If the same person took an intelligence test at different points in time, you would expect the result to be similar What are the 2 main signs that a test is really reliable - ANS -all the items correlate so are measuring the same thing -test-retest scores are similar Yet test could still not measure what it claims, so could still be highly reliable but lack validity Why did Spearman propose his theory and what was this theory - ANS Noted positive relationship between different intelligence-related test scores- if did well on one task, would do well on the other Known as underlying factor of general intelligence of 'g' How was Spearman's theory a two-factor model - ANS Consisted of two-factors Specific abilities- e.g. maths, vocab, spatial. Each type of intelligence needed for performing well on each different intelligence task. General intelligence- G factor. Underlying performance on all specific abilities What were the 2 key tests developed based on Spearman's theory - ANS WAIS/WISC Raven's Matrices What does WAIS and WISC stand for - ANS WAIS- Wechsler adult intelligence scale WISC- Wechsler scale for children How can WAIS be calculated - ANS Actual test score divided by expected score of that age, times by 100 then standardised What additional 2 steps are involved in calculating WAIS - ANS 1) find out the expected score for any particular age to enable comparison 2) transform scores to a standardized form What did Wechsler use to help standardize scores - ANS Used the normal distribution curve/bell curve How is WAIS structured- - ANS G influences performance on four elements- verbal comprehension, perceptual organisation, working memory and processing speed Each of these elements are measured with several tests How was the WAIS different from other tests- what concept was introduced - ANS Designed so different ages could take it Introduced concept of deviation IQ- so more comparable across different age groups What was the main idea of Raven's Progressive Matrices, thus what was the best way for it to be tested - ANS Focused on the idea that 'g' was an abstract ability Thought best way to test this was to design a test free from cultural influences, particularly language- thus created a non-verbal test What sort of analysis did further theories of intelligence use when developing and building on g - ANS Factor analysis- looked at correlations between different intelligence abilities/tests What was Thurston's view of 'g' - ANS Agreed with Spearman's hypothesis of 'g', yet argued Spearman hadn't shown that 'g' was influencing the different tests, only that they correlated. Argued 'g' resulting from seven primary mental abilities, rather than being the cause of them. How do Spearman and Thurston's views of 'g' mainly differ - ANS Spearman- g underlies specific abilities Thurston- specific abilities underly g Same components, different direction of influence What were Thurston's 7 primary mental abilities - ANS Associative memory Number Perceptual speed Reasoning Space Verbal comprehension Word fluency What was Cattell's theory of fluid vs crystallized intelligence - ANS Agree that there was general intelligence, but that this was made of two components Fluid intelligence (gF)- ability to solve abstract relational problems that have not been explicitly taught and free from cultural influence Crystallized intelligence (gC)- ability to solve problems that depend on knowledge acquired in school. What sort of intelligences did Raven's and Weschler's test measure - ANS Weschler- Crystallised Raven's- Fluid What is Guildford's structure of intellect theory - ANS Did not acknowledge presence of 'g', instead suggested intelligence was the result of 150 independent variables creating illusion of 'g'. What were the 3 groups in Guildford's theory - ANS Operations- mental processing Evaluation, memory, cognition, convergent production, divergent production Content- mental material we possess that operations are performed on Visual, auditory, semantic, behavioural, symbolic Products- how information is stored, processed and used to make connections Units, classes, relations, systems, transformation, implication. Intelligence emerges from the combination of these different components What does Vernon's hierarchical theory state - ANS Argued intelligence is made up of various groups of abilities that can be described at various levels From- General intelligence Major group factors- v:ed (verbal/educational) and k:m (spatial/mechanical) Minor group factors Specific intelligence factors What does Carroll's three-striatum model of human cognitive abilities state - ANS Similar structure to Vernon's theory, but integrated more research 3 hierarchical levels term stratums- 1) stratum 1- specific levels of intelligence, overall identified 69 different cognitive abilities 2) stratum 2- broad factors arising from these specific levels of intelligence 3) stratum 3- general level of intelligence What does the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory suggest about intelligence? - ANS Idea that there are 9 broad 'g' abilities beyond fluid and crystallized What does Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences model describe - ANS Theory stems from more practical uses of intelligence Disputes that intelligence is a sensory system, instead says its the sum of the processing system that can take place irrespective of sensory input Cannot be measured through traditional intelligence tests but through activities What are Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences? - ANS -linguistic intelligence -logical - mathematical intelligence -visual - spatial intelligence -bodily - kinesthetic intelligence -musical - rhythmic intelligence -interpersonal intelligence (knowing your feelings) -intrapersonal intelligence (sensitivity to other's feelings) -naturalist- nature - existentialist- spiritual What did Howard Gardner say about the role of the brain in his theory - ANS Proposes each intelligence resides in separate sections of the brain Independent and without control from other intelligences, but they do interact. What are the main issues with the multiple intelligence theory - ANS -lack of empirical evidence and validity - some argue multiple intelligences relate to specific abilities or lower levels of hierarchical models -rebuttal- doesn't negate presence of 'g', just that it is equal to these other intelligences What does Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence describe intelligence as being - ANS Describes intelligence as being the ability to achieve success within a socio-cultural context What are the three sub-theories involved in Sternberg's triarchic theory - ANS Componential sub-theory- mental mechanisms that underlie successful intelligence- Analytical Contextual sub-theory- way in which people use these mechanisms to demonstrate intelligent behaviour within a particular context- Practical Experiential sub-theory- the role of experience in mobilising cognitive mechanisms to meet environmental demands- Creative What three components are involved in the componential sub-theory - ANS 1) meta components- recognising problem and developing strategies 2) performance components- solving problem 3) knowledge acquisition components- sifting out relevant from irrelevant information What three components are involved in contextual sub-theory - ANS 1) Adaptation- adapting to world 2) Shaping- adapting environment to individual 3) Selection- choosing one environment over another What two components are involved in experiential sub-theory - ANS 1) novelty- managing novel situations 2) automation- automatising information What did Sternberg define tacit knowledge as - ANS Defined as being action oriented knowledge, usually learned without the help of others- based on understanding procedures rather than facts Does IQ increases across generations - ANS Yes- by about 10 IQ points What is this increase in IQ across generations called - ANS Flynn effect What tests did Flynn find highest rises in IQ occurred in over generations - ANS Highest in non-verbal tests- fluid intelligence Lowest in verbal tests- crystallised intelligence What potential environmental influences could contribute to Flynn effect - ANS - nutrition has improved - more test-oriented and more time in educational settings -different child rearing practices -technology- greater access to information and exposure to visual media What did Batterjee et al find when measuring intelligence in 1977 and 2010 in Saudi Arabia using Raven's Matrices, and what was their explanation - ANS Higher performance in 2010 than 1977 Explanation was because it was an economically developing country during this period How is there factorial invariance in the WAIS - ANS Results of tests on bottom proposed to be measure of tests above Not a direct test of middle constructs or 'g', indirect sum of tests on bottom E.g. each task at bottom right thought to measure verbal comprehension, thus each will have a coefficient value Factorial invariance means that we would not expect these coefficients to change drastically across cohorts How could intelligence tests themselves cause an increase in IQ - ANS Factorial invariance- when we get two different cohorts, e.g. 30 years apart, when take same IQ test should in theory test the same construct Studies have found that sometimes measures are not factorial invariant- e.g. test measuring verbal comprehension in first cohort may not have measured it well in second- issue with the measure is causing increase in IQ To do with issues with IQ tests and not actual increase in IQ What did Terman find when investigating highly gifted children - ANS Did well generally, but their achievements were unimpressive given their high IQ scores- did however have above average levels of satisfaction with life and wellbeing What factor did Duckworth and Seligman find is more important than IQ in predicting academic performance in adolescents - ANS Self-discipline- accounted for twice as much variance in final grades than IQ scores Who coined the term nature nurture - ANS Francis Galton What did Galton find when looking at familiar relations and its connection to 'eminence' - ANS 1st degree relatives of those who were eminent were most likely to be viewed as eminent What percentage of genes does the child get from each parent - ANS 50% What is meant by genetic variability - ANS How much of the child's genotype influences the phenotype- -includes the variability between parent and child (how much they differ) -proportion of shared variance (how much they are the same) What would variability and shared variance be if parent and child are- a) different b) very similar - ANS a) high variability and low shared variance b) low variability and high shared variance What factor causes some phenotypes (like intelligence) to not be 100% caused by the genotype influencing the phenotype - ANS Environmental factors What are the two broad techniques to get heritability estimates - ANS -behavioural approaches -DNA/Physiological approaches What is behavioral genetics interested in obtaining - ANS The average estimate of the proportion of variance for intelligence thought to be accounted for by genetic factors across a population What are the 3 traditional methods used to assess genetic heritability - ANS -Family studies -Twin studies -Adoption studies Why should we be careful when interpreting heritability estimates - ANS Remembering they're just estimates- do not refer to heritability estimates among an individual Certain populations- e.g. MZ, DZ twins etc What range of estimated heritability of intelligence for the general population were suggested from behavioural genetics methods - ANS 40-80% How can DNA approaches be used to approach intelligence - ANS Studies such as the genome-wide association study consider the entire set of DNA of a large group of people Search for small variations called SNP/SNIPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms)- scientists use these SNIPS to potentially identify SNIPS occurring more frequently in people with a certain disease or trait What did Dreary conclude from his study about intelligence and life span - ANS Intelligence was found to be quite stable across lifespan What did Dreary et al conclude the genetic contribution to the stability of intelligence across life span to be - ANS 38% What did Dreary, Cox and Hill in 2021 conclude heritability of intelligence to be- most recent estimate - ANS 20-30% What is the main benefit of using DNA approaches to intelligence rather than behavioral - ANS Improved and more precise measure Help give us more accurate picture Reduced contribution of genes to intelligence What is the older view of genes and environment - ANS Viewed the role of genes and environment as additive model Genes+Environment= Phenotype What is the more modern view of genes and environment - ANS Viewed as a more interactive model Genes X Environment= Phenotype What are the 2 main concepts we need to consider heritability within - ANS 1) Abstract concepts- theoretical concepts Estimates do not tell us about specific genes or environmental variables- we are taking abstract ideas then trying to find physical element of it 2) Population concepts- estimates refer to a group of people (population). Cannot tell us about an individual, how generalisable is this to the general population. What are the 3 types of genetic variance - ANS 1) Additive Genes+Environment= Phenotype 2) Dominant Process of which genes are expressed (dominant) or not expressed (recessive) 3) Epistatic Process of how genes interact- how certain genes interact with others determines whether they are expressed or suppressed What makes up broad heritability - ANS Additive+Dominant+Epistatic What is assortative mating - ANS Assumption that mating is random so any similarities in traits is by chance- but people mate with someone who is similar to themselves Thus is not random What is the problem with the representativeness of twin and adoption studies - ANS May under or overestimate heritability in the general population What are 3 notable biological environmental influences on intelligence - ANS Nutrition- positive correlation between nutrition and intelligence Lead- negative correlation Prenatal- smoking and alcohol consumption increase chance of premature or low-weight babies- can impact intelligence What is one of the main influences for the Flynn effect - ANS Nutrition What did Belmont and Marolla suggest about birth order and family size - ANS As both increase, intelligence scores decrease. What was concluded to be the main problem with previous research on family size and birth order - ANS Was comparing 2 different population types Comparing someone's birth order (within family), and comparing this with size of other families (across family) What were the 3 theories put forward to explain birth order having an effect on intelligence - ANS 1) Admixture hypothesis- Stated that those with lower IQ and SES tend to have more children- this SES and parental intelligence then affects children's intelligence. 2) Resource dilution model- Parental resources are finite, thus as the family increases resources for each child decreases. 3) Confluence model- Need to consider intelligence within the context of family E.g. situations where you teach younger siblings could increase intelligence What are the main three ideas important in regards to culture and intelligence - ANS 1) decontextualisation 2) quantification 3) biologisation What is meant by decontextualisation - ANS Ability to disconnect from a situation, think about it abstractly and generalise from it Is an important skill for western societies- so has become a sign of intelligence- cultural context What is meant by culture quantification - ANS Ability to discover or express the quantity of something E.g. some cultures quantify intelligence in terms of numbers Intelligence research tends to quantify intelligence- encapsulating a number of meanings into one word Need to be careful not to over-quantify What is meant by reification - ANS Regarding abstract ideas (like intelligence) as concrete or material What is meant by culture biologisation - ANS Study of intelligence is relatively new phenomenon Small samples of data from a small snapshot in this evolutionary period- may be limits in what we are measuring What are the 6 assumptions of the Bell Curve book (1994) - ANS 1) there is such thing as a general factor of intelligence 2) IQ tests are designed to measure 'g' and are mostly accurate 3) IQ scores match general ideas of what intelligence is 4) IQ scores are stable, although not perfectly so 5) Properly administered IQ tests are not demonstrably biased against social, ethnic, economic or racial groups 6) Cognitive ability is substantially heritable What 4 ideas did the bell curve book propose - ANS 1) Cognitive elite- there is an emergence of a cognitive elite 2) Socioeconomic variables and IQ- individuals intelligence is more important than SES for predicting economic and social welfare 3) Race and intelligence- Asian-Americans have higher IQ than white Americans, African-Americans have lower 4) Proposed implications for social policy What were the main implications for social policy from the bell curve - ANS -population of those with lower IQ is increasing as women with a lower IQ tend to have more children -immigrants contribute towards this -increases societal problems caused by groups of people in America with lower intelligence What are the 3 main flaws in the stats and evidence used in the Bell Curve book - ANS 1) Correlation does not equal causation- bell curve said there were correlations between SES and intelligence 2) Validity issues- studies using self-report measures for SES with children and no additional checks 3) Problematic research studies- e.g. study omitted findings showing that there was higher IQ for black participants terming it inconsistent- ignore actual evidence that contradicts their ideas What was the main conclusion of the taskforce prompted by the bell curve book - ANS While the average IQ scores between African Americans and White Americans may differ, there is no definite evidence to suggest this is due to genetics Is more likely to be cultural Who were the first group of experts to find a consensus on intelligence - ANS APA taskforce Yerkes created the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, what is the differences between these tests - ANS Alpha- was for literate groups Beta- for illiterate, low literate or non-english speaking Why did scientists initially believe men were superior in mental abilities to women - ANS Because women's brains were smaller What is a narrative analysis approach - ANS Researcher weights up the evidence presented across a number of studies The analysis consists of assessing whether a study supports a hypothesis or not What method did Court use in his systematic review and what did he find - ANS Used narrative analysis approach Considered 120, focusing on the abstract ability using the Raven's matrices- some small difference here and there but overall concluded no differences. What is the main limitations of narrative analysis approach - ANS Are the findings powerful enough Often (e.g. Court) have small sample sizes What method can resolve this limitation of narrative analysis approach being underpowered - ANS Meta-analysis- overcoming limits of small sample sizes by pooling data from many studies -uses results from numerous studies to calculate an average effect size -potentially more meaningful- bigger sample/range of participants What do we usually use to measure effect size - ANS Cohen's d What numbers represent each effect size - ANS 0.2- small 0.5- medium 0.8- large What did Lynn and Irwing find in their meta-analysis - ANS Looked at intelligence in both sexes under 15, 15-19, undergrads and adults All had relatively small effect sizes, no higher than 0.3 Effects increase as people get older- where males score slightly higher than females - ANS What do some researchers suggest could be the reason some sex differences are found in intelligence tests - ANS Could be explained by unrepresentative samples of females and males- errors in methods used to investigate the question What specific abilities did Maccoby and Jacklin suggest men and women perform better in - ANS On average- Men perform better on tests of spatial abilities Women perform better on tests of verbal ability What did meta-analysis find when investigating the conclusions made by Maccoby and Jacklin in regards to spatial and verbal ability - ANS Spatial ability- found small-large effect sizes for males being better Verbal ability- smaller effect sizes, some larger in adolescence but small when combined. What did Benbow and Stanley find in 1983 about gifted children taking SATS and their spatial and verbal abilities - ANS Found were no differences between boys and girls in verbal section Found was differences in maths section- boys tended to do better What is the ratio of top achievers in maths being reduced from, and what is it now - ANS Used to be 13:1 Has been reduced to 3:1 What are the 4 biological explanations for why men are better than women at spatial abilities - ANS 1) brain size/structure 2) brain function 3) hormones 4) evolution How can brain size and structure be used to explain mens enhanced spatial abilities - ANS Brain size- Men's brains on average 10% larger than women's, difference only seen from adolescence due to different maturity rates. Link is small and has been overused- is too small of a difference to play any major role Brain structure- -women have bigger splenium (part of corpus callosum) and bigger corpus callosum. -may mean tasks are more evenly distributed between hemispheres- due to more communication. -tasks solved more efficiently when carried out by one side of the brain -female brains more bilaterally organised- suggested to decrease efficiency of tasks What is function of grey and white matter in brain - ANS Grey- processes information in brain, e.g. dendrites, soma White- transports information, e.g. axons How can brain function be used to explain mens enhanced spatial abilities - ANS Haier et al used MRI to find areas of the brain relating to intelligence. Found IQ among females more related to white matter (transporting information) and fewer grey matter areas (processing information) than males Concluded males and females can achieve same IQ scores with different parts of the brain Intelligence in males might be more related to information processing, e.g. spatial ability How can hormones be used to explain mens enhanced spatial abilities - ANS Testosterone has been found to be related to higher performance in spatial ability tasks What did Choi and Silverman find in their study investigating hormones and how males and females provide directions - ANS Females gave relative directions and landmarks Males gave distance and cardinal directions Among males, testosterone was positively related to using distance and cardinal directions Concluding testosterone has an effect on organisation of spatial tasks What did Barry et al (2013) find when looking at females with polycystic syndrome and hormones - ANS Women with PCOS have elevated levels of testosterone Participants and controls carried out a 3D mental rotation task (spatial) PCOS scored significantly higher than controls on this task How can evolution explain mens enhanced spatial abilities- 2 explanations - ANS 1) Males needed spatial ability when hunting over large areas etc. Women did not need spatial abilities as much as they gathered crops over small areas and spatially restricted due to childcare. 2) Survival of the fittest- males with greater spatial ability more likely to win wars, maintain relationships, supply food etc. Thus more likely to reproduce and have offspring with 'spatial ability genes.' What are the issues with these evolutionary explanations - ANS 1) circulatory argument- which came first hunting or spatial abilities? 2) could explain any finding by speculating what might have been advantageous to hunter-gatherer societies 3) these theories ignore that women have always needed to engage in spatial tasks 4) also ignore evidence that women played a significant role in hunting and warfare. What did Hoffman et al find when controlling for biology by examining two genetically related tribes with different environments - ANS If we accept only biological explanations- would expect no differences in spatial ability In patriarchal society- males faster at solving puzzle In matriarchal society- was no difference Suggests environment plays a role How can stereotypes influence spatial awareness skills in children - ANS Boys tend to play with toys that encourage development of spatial awareness skills Campbell et al- toy preference reflects gender stereotypes in children as young as 9 months old What did Feng et al find when looking at spatial attention and mental rotation among gamers/non-gamers and males/females - ANS Found gamers performed better than non-gamers with no sex differences Among non-gamers, males performed better Suggests when have opportunity to develop these skills don't see sex differences in spatial abilities In experiment 2, gave experimental group 10 hour action video game training. Found all benefitted, females benefitted more than males. What are the 3 ways children can adopt stereotypical preferences - ANS 1) reinforcement- mothers and fathers reinforce sex appropriate behaviour and discourage sex inappropriate behaviour 2) modelling- children observe same sex others and gain stereotypes on how they 'should' behave- forms part of gender identity 3) socialisation of boys- e.g. boys given greater freedom to explore Culturally, what sort of words are males and females associated with - ANS Males- active terms Females- passive terms What is the explanation for why some studies find differences in the sexes and education - ANS Difference in course taking Girls less likely to choose STEM subjects as stereotyped as masculine subjects- therefore less likely to develop spatial ability skills What did WISE report in 2014 was the percentage of A level physics entrants that were female - ANS 21% What did study by Moss-Racusin et al find when applications for Lab Manager in STEM subjects were randomly given male or female names - ANS Faculty rated male applicant as more competent and hireable than the female- even though the applications were identical What is meant by stereotype threat - ANS Negative stereotypes about different social groups can affect ability What did Spencer et al find when investigating stereotype threat with 2 conditions- 1) male and female took maths test 2) male and female took maths test but told males had scored better on this test in the past - ANS Found females in 2nd condition scored lower than men- no difference was found in condition 1 What did Inzlicht and Ben-Zeev find about stereotype threat and the presence of others - ANS Took maths and verbal test 2 conditions for each: 1) female participant with 2 other females 1) female participant with 2 males When in the presence of others related to that stereotype- found females performed worse in maths test when in presence of males Simply presence can bring about stereotype threat What did the Global Gender Gap find about countries with higher gender equality and mathematical performance - ANS Nations with greater gender equality portray small gender differences in mathematical performance What are implicit theories - ANS Where individuals develop theories, beliefs and deeply held schemas about human attributes- intelligence is subject to this What sort of bias can implicit theories be linked to - ANS Unconscious bias- our implicit theories can come from places of prejudice and can develop unconsciously. What did Costa and Faria find regarding implicit theories and academic performance - ANS Found significant association between implicit theories and academic performance -those who viewed intelligence as malleable were more likely to have better grades overall -those who viewed intelligence as fixed still showed positive association but not to same extent as those with a malleable view MALLEABLE views of intelligence lead to higher motivation and attainment, FIXED views lead to lower motivation and attainment What is a layperson - ANS Refers to a non-expert or non-professional in a field- in this case in the field of intelligence. What did Sternberg, Conway, Ketron and Bernstein find to be laypersons behaviors characteristic of intelligence - ANS 1) Practical problem solving- effectively dealing with problems we face in everyday life 2) Verbal ability- expressing yourself effectively and with some eloquence 3) Social competence- to be accepted and fulfilled socially What did Sternberg find to be the 6 dimensions of layperson intelligence - ANS First 2 the same as previous study 1) practical problem solving 2) verbal ability 3) intellectual balance and integration 4) goal orientation and attainment 5) contextual intelligence 6) fluid thought Which philosophers impacted how intelligence is viewed in Western cultures - ANS Plato and Aristole What concept did Plato and Aristotle use to consider intelligence - ANS Concept of souls What were the 3 different types of souls that Plato and Aristotle considered - ANS Souls meaning beings with animation 1) Vegetative soul- linked to plants 2) Sensitive soul- linked to animals capable of movement 3) Intellectual soul- linked to humans What was the main factor involved in intelligence for Plato and Aristotle - ANS For them intelligence was simply the ability to reason No other factors such as memory etc were involved What were the 2 forms of reasoning used by Aristole and Plato - ANS Discursive reasoning- slow and deductive Intuitive reasoning- fast and not deductive What do Western implicit theories of intelligence emphasize - ANS -speed/depth of mental processing -verbal abilities -emphasis on learning -good memory -good cognitive skills Can see a link to individual reasoning What impacted how intelligence is viewed in Eastern cultures - ANS Confucius and Taoist writings What were the 5 factors of intelligence in Eastern cultures found by Yang and Sternberg - ANS 1) General cognitive factor intelligence- good ability for practical problem solving 2) Interpersonal intelligence 3) Intrapersonal intelligence 4) Intellectual self-assertion- e..g confident, aware of intelligence 5) Intellectual self-effacement- e.g. modest about this intellectual ability What do Eastern implicit theories of intelligence emphasize - ANS -similar ideas to Western cultures -BUT apply not to just the individual- extended to social, historical and spiritual aspects of everyday life Eastern cultures place more of an emphasis on social characteristics How can theories of intelligence in Western and Eastern cultures be explained - ANS Western cultures tend to be more individualistic- focus on primacy of individual Eastern cultures tend to be more collectivist- focus on collective nature of social obligation What aspects of intelligence tend to be similar cross-culturally in study comparing Chinese and Australian adults - ANS Willingness to think and observe Wide range of interests Independent thinking What aspects of intelligence tend to be different cross-culturally in study comparing Chinese and Australian adults - ANS Eastern culture- ability to learn, analytical thinking, sharp thinking and displaying confidence Western culture- logical reasoning and problem solving Differences tend to reflect emphasis of the culture (collectivist and individualist) What did study by Lim, Plucker and Im (2002) find when looking at if cross-cultural differences have been reduced in participants in Korea, which factor of intelligence did the Koreans value most - ANS Quite similar views on intelligence to those found within western cultures 1) social competence 2) problem solving 3) coping with novelty 4) self-management 5) practical competence Koreans valued the factor involving social competence and responsibility- still highlighting emphasis on the world around them Which are the 2 ways in which people formalized approaches to intellgence - ANS 1) developing theories 2) developing measures Which psychologist is explicitly linked to, and coined the term eugenics - ANS Galton What did Binet do in intelligence testing - ANS Developed a scale that was specifically aimed to be an education tool to support school children Developed Binet-Simon scale of intelligence and concept of mental age to compare age norms How did Alfred Binet view intelligence - ANS Highlighted bad critical thinking of his contemporaries -clear that intelligence was too complex to capture in 1 test or in a number -intelligence was not a single scalable entity -viewed it as malleable What were Binet's 3 cardinal principles in regards to his intelligence test- - ANS 1) test scores are for practical purposes- cannot explicitly be linked to intelligence 2) scale is a rough, empirical guide for identifying children who need support- cannot be used for ranking all children 3) low scores are an indication that support is needed not that a child is innately incapable Crucially he did not want his tool to be used to indefinitely label a person What did Goddard and Terman do with the Binet-Stanford scale of intelligence - ANS Brought Binet's scale to the US Revised the scale by adding new items, establishing new age norms Introduced standardization- need for representative samples to create norms Created the Stanford-Binet scale How is IQ calculated - ANS Mental age/chronological age x 100 What was the absence of critical thinking in how Goddard and Terman used Binet's scale - ANS Ignored Binet's cardinal principles -saw the scale as something that captured intelligence What was a big problem in early intelligence research - ANS There was no agreed consensus What was a problematic outcome from early intelligence research - ANS In the early 1900s, eugenics was a popular idea taken on board by many academics Policies influenced crimes by Nazis, and sterilization laws What were the problematic outcomes from the research by Goddard and Terman - ANS -used their ideas to influence American education policy arguing that schools needed to be segregated to train efficient workers -ableism and racism was a part of this- e.g. Terman believed African-Americans etc showed low intelligence using his measure In what year was an expert consensus reached about intelligence - ANS 1995 What does intelligence comprise of at 2 and 10 years old - ANS 2- verbal ability, motor coordination, ability to learn and awareness of people 10- verbal ability, learning, problem solving, reasoning and creativity What did Yussen and Kane argue older students categorize intelligence into - ANS Three aspects of intelligence- academic, social and physical intelligence Younger students do not differentiate these and think of intelligence as one dimensional What are the 2 main reasons for a shift in young people's perceptions of intelligence in younger and older students - ANS 1) older students have matured cognitively- as go through school have number of cumulative experiences regarding own intelligence thus understanding of intelligence becomes more complex 2) older students have undergone socialization What is meant by the cognitive elite - ANS A social group of people with high intelligence with increasingly high chance of succeeding in life What is meant by test validity - ANS The extent to which a test accurately measures what it is supposed to measure- in this case do intelligence tests actually measure intelligence How can internal reliability be used to assess testing - ANS If different items within a test correlate positively with one another they measure the same construct What is meant by test-retest reliability - ANS Reliability of a test over time If the same person took an intelligence test at different points in time, you would expect the result to be similar What are the 2 main signs that a test is really reliable - ANS -all the items correlate so are measuring the same thing -test-retest scores are similar Yet test could still not measure what it claims, so could still be highly reliable but lack validity Why did Spearman propose his theory and what was this theory - ANS Noted positive relationship between different intelligence-related test scores- if did well on one task, would do well on the other Known as underlying factor of general intelligence of 'g' How was Spearman's theory a two-factor model - ANS Consisted of two-factors Specific abilities- e.g. maths, vocab, spatial. Each type of intelligence needed for performing well on each different intelligence task. General intelligence- G factor. Underlying performance on all specific abilities What were the 2 key tests developed based on Spearman's theory - ANS WAIS/WISC Raven's Matrices What does WAIS and WISC stand for - ANS WAIS- Wechsler adult intelligence scale WISC- Wechsler scale for children How can WAIS be calculated - ANS Actual test score divided by expected score of that age, times by 100 then standardised What additional 2 steps are involved in calculating WAIS - ANS 1) find out the expected score for any particular age to enable comparison 2) transform scores to a standardized form What did Wechsler use to help standardize scores - ANS Used the normal distribution curve/bell curve How is WAIS structured- - ANS G influences performance on four elements- verbal comprehension, perceptual organisation, working memory and processing speed Each of these elements are measured with several tests How was the WAIS different from other tests- what concept was introduced - ANS Designed so different ages could take it Introduced concept of deviation IQ- so more comparable across different age groups What was the main idea of Raven's Progressive Matrices, thus what was the best way for it to be tested - ANS Focused on the idea that 'g' was an abstract ability Thought best way to test this was to design a test free from cultural influences, particularly language- thus created a non-verbal test What sort of analysis did further theories of intelligence use when developing and building on g - ANS Factor analysis- looked at correlations between different intelligence abilities/tests What was Thurston's view of 'g' - ANS Agreed with Spearman's hypothesis of 'g', yet argued Spearman hadn't shown that 'g' was influencing the different tests, only that they correlated. Argued 'g' resulting from seven primary mental abilities, rather than being the cause of them. How do Spearman and Thurston's views of 'g' mainly differ - ANS Spearman- g underlies specific abilities Thurston- specific abilities underly g Same components, different direction of influence What were Thurston's 7 primary mental abilities - ANS Associative memory Number Perceptual speed Reasoning Space Verbal comprehension Word fluency What was Cattell's theory of fluid vs crystallized intelligence - ANS Agree that there was general intelligence, but that this was made of two components Fluid intelligence (gF)- ability to solve abstract relational problems that have not been explicitly taught and free from cultural influence Crystallized intelligence (gC)- ability to solve problems that depend on knowledge acquired in school. What sort of intelligences did Raven's and Weschler's test measure - ANS Weschler- Crystallised Raven's- Fluid What is Guildford's structure of intellect theory - ANS Did not acknowledge presence of 'g', instead suggested intelligence was the result of 150 independent variables creating illusion of 'g'. What were the 3 groups in Guildford's theory - ANS Operations- mental processing Evaluation, memory, cognition, convergent production, divergent production Content- mental material we possess that operations are performed on Visual, auditory, semantic, behavioural, symbolic Products- how information is stored, processed and used to make connections Units, classes, relations, systems, transformation, implication. Intelligence emerges from the combination of these different components What does Vernon's hierarchical theory state - ANS Argued intelligence is made up of various groups of abilities that can be described at various levels From- General intelligence Major group factors- v:ed (verbal/educational) and k:m (spatial/mechanical) Minor group factors Specific intelligence factors What does Carroll's three-striatum model of human cognitive abilities state - ANS Similar structure to Vernon's theory, but integrated more research 3 hierarchical levels term stratums- 1) stratum 1- specific levels of intelligence, overall identified 69 different cognitive abilities 2) stratum 2- broad factors arising from these specific levels of intelligence 3) stratum 3- general level of intelligence What does the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory suggest about intelligence? - ANS Idea that there are 9 broad 'g' abilities beyond fluid and crystallized What does Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences model describe - ANS Theory stems from more practical uses of intelligence Disputes that intelligence is a sensory system, instead says its the sum of the processing system that can take place irrespective of sensory input Cannot be measured through traditional intelligence tests but through activities What are Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences? - ANS -linguistic intelligence -logical - mathematical intelligence -visual - spatial intelligence -bodily - kinesthetic intelligence -musical - rhythmic intelligence -interpersonal intelligence (knowing your feelings) -intrapersonal intelligence (sensitivity to other's feelings) -naturalist- nature - existentialist- spiritual What did Howard Gardner say about the role of the brain in his theory - ANS Proposes each intelligence resides in separate sections of the brain Independent and without control from other intelligences, but they do interact. What are the main issues with the multiple intelligence theory - ANS -lack of empirical evidence and validity - some argue multiple intelligences relate to specific abilities or lower levels of hierarchical models -rebuttal- doesn't negate presence of 'g', just that it is equal to these other intelligences What does Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence describe intelligence as being - ANS Describes intelligence as being the ability to achieve success within a socio-cultural context What are the three sub-theories involved in Sternberg's triarchic theory - ANS Componential sub-theory- mental mechanisms that underlie successful intelligence- Analytical Contextual sub-theory- way in which people use these mechanisms to demonstrate intelligent behaviour within a particular context- Practical Experiential sub-theory- the role of experience in mobilising cognitive mechanisms to meet environmental demands- Creative What three components are involved in the componential sub-theory - ANS 1) meta components- recognising problem and developing strategies 2) performance components- solving problem 3) knowledge acquisition components- sifting out relevant from irrelevant information What three components are involved in contextual sub-theory - ANS 1) Adaptation- adapting to world 2) Shaping- adapting environment to individual 3) Selection- choosing one environment over another What two components are involved in experiential sub-theory - ANS 1) novelty- managing novel situations 2) automation- automatising information What did Sternberg define tacit knowledge as - ANS Defined as being action oriented knowledge, usually learned without the help of others- based on understanding procedures rather than facts Does IQ increases across generations - ANS Yes- by about 10 IQ points What is this increase in IQ across generations called - ANS Flynn effect What tests did Flynn find highest rises in IQ occurred in over generations - ANS Highest in non-verbal tests- fluid intelligence Lowest in verbal tests- crystallised intelligence What potential environmental influences could contribute to Flynn effect - ANS - nutrition has improved - more test-oriented and more time in educational settings -different child rearing practices -technology- greater access to information and exposure to visual media What did Batterjee et al find when measuring intelligence in 1977 and 2010 in Saudi Arabia using Raven's Matrices, and what was their explanation - ANS Higher performance in 2010 than 1977 Explanation was because it was an economically developing country during this period How is there factorial invariance in the WAIS - ANS Results of tests on bottom proposed to be measure of tests above Not a direct test of middle constructs or 'g', indirect sum of tests on bottom E.g. each task at bottom right thought to measure verbal comprehension, thus each will have a coefficient value Factorial invariance means that we would not expect these coefficients to change drastically across cohorts How could intelligence tests themselves cause an increase in IQ - ANS Factorial invariance- when we get two different cohorts, e.g. 30 years apart, when take same IQ test should in theory test the same construct Studies have found that sometimes measures are not factorial invariant- e.g. test measuring verbal comprehension in first cohort may not have measured it well in second- issue with the measure is causing increase in IQ To do with issues with IQ tests and not actual increase in IQ What did Terman find when investigating highly gifted children - ANS Did well generally, but their achievements were unimpressive given their high IQ scores- did however have above average levels of satisfaction with life and wellbeing What factor did Duckworth and Seligman find is more important than IQ in predicting academic performance in adolescents - ANS Self-discipline- accounted for twice as much variance in final grades than IQ scores Who coined the term nature nurture - ANS Francis Galton What did Galton find when looking at familiar relations and its connection to 'eminence' - ANS 1st degree relatives of those who were eminent were most likely to be viewed as eminent What percentage of genes does the child get from each parent - ANS 50% What is meant by genetic variability - ANS How much of the child's genotype influences the phenotype- -includes the variability between parent and child (how much they differ) -proportion of shared variance (how much they are the same) What would variability and shared variance be if parent and child are- a) different b) very similar - ANS a) high variability and low shared variance b) low variability and high shared variance What factor causes some phenotypes (like intelligence) to not be 100% caused by the genotype influencing the phenotype - ANS Environmental factors What are the two broad techniques to get heritability estimates - ANS -behavioural approaches -DNA/Physiological approaches What is behavioral genetics interested in obtaining - ANS The average estimate of the proportion of variance for intelligence thought to be accounted for by genetic factors across a population What are the 3 traditional methods used to assess genetic heritability - ANS -Family studies -Twin studies -Adoption studies Why should we be careful when interpreting heritability estimates - ANS Remembering they're just estimates- do not refer to heritability estimates among an individual Certain populations- e.g. MZ, DZ twins etc What range of estimated heritability of intelligence for the general population were suggested from behavioural genetics methods - ANS 40-80% How can DNA approaches be used to approach intelligence - ANS Studies such as the genome-wide association study consider the entire set of DNA of a large group of people Search for small variations called SNP/SNIPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms)- scientists use these SNIPS to potentially identify SNIPS occurring more frequently in people with a certain disease or trait What did Dreary conclude from his study about intelligence and life span - ANS Intelligence was found to be quite stable across lifespan What did Dreary et al conclude the genetic contribution to the stability of intelligence across life span to be - ANS 38% What did Dreary, Cox and Hill in 2021 conclude heritability of intelligence to be- most recent estimate - ANS 20-30% What is the main benefit of using DNA approaches to intelligence rather than behavioral - ANS Improved and more precise measure Help give us more accurate picture Reduced contribution of genes to intelligence What is the older view of genes and environment - ANS Viewed the role of genes and environment as additive model Genes+Environment= Phenotype What is the more modern view of genes and environment - ANS Viewed as a more interactive model Genes X Environment= Phenotype What are the 2 main concepts we need to consider heritability within - ANS 1) Abstract concepts- theoretical concepts Estimates do not tell us about specific genes or environmental variables- we are taking abstract ideas then trying to find physical element of it 2) Population concepts- estimates refer to a group of people (population). Cannot tell us about an individual, how generalisable is this to the general population. What are the 3 types of genetic variance - ANS 1) Additive Genes+Environment= Phenotype 2) Dominant Process of which genes are expressed (dominant) or not expressed (recessive) 3) Epistatic Process of how genes interact- how certain genes interact with others determines whether they are expressed or suppressed What makes up broad heritability - ANS Additive+Dominant+Epistatic What is assortative mating - ANS Assumption that mating is random so any similarities in traits is by chance- but people mate with someone who is similar to themselves Thus is not random What is the problem with the representativeness of twin and adoption studies - ANS May under or overestimate heritability in the general population What are 3 notable biological environmental influences on intelligence - ANS Nutrition- positive correlation between nutrition and intelligence Lead- negative correlation Prenatal- smoking and alcohol consumption increase chance of premature or low-weight babies- can impact intelligence What is one of the main influences for the Flynn effect - ANS Nutrition What did Belmont and Marolla suggest about birth order and family size - ANS As both increase, intelligence scores decrease. What was concluded to be the main problem with previous research on family size and birth order - ANS Was comparing 2 different population types Comparing someone's birth order (within family), and comparing this with size of other families (across family) What were the 3 theories put forward to explain birth order having an effect on intelligence - ANS 1) Admixture hypothesis- Stated that those with lower IQ and SES tend to have more children- this SES and parental intelligence then affects children's intelligence. 2) Resource dilution model- Parental resources are finite, thus as the family increases resources for each child decreases. 3) Confluence model- Need to consider intelligence within the context of family E.g. situations where you teach younger siblings could increase intelligence What are the main three ideas important in regards to culture and intelligence - ANS 1) decontextualisation 2) quantification 3) biologisation What is meant by decontextualisation - ANS Ability to disconnect from a situation, think about it abstractly and generalise from it Is an important skill for western societies- so has become a sign of intelligence- cultural context What is meant by culture quantification - ANS Ability to discover or express the quantity of something E.g. some cultures quantify intelligence in terms of numbers Intelligence research tends to quantify intelligence- encapsulating a number of meanings into one word Need to be careful not to over-quantify What is meant by reification - ANS Regarding abstract ideas (like intelligence) as concrete or material What is meant by culture biologisation - ANS Study of intelligence is relatively new phenomenon Small samples of data from a small snapshot in this evolutionary period- may be limits in what we are measuring What are the 6 assumptions of the Bell Curve book (1994) - ANS 1) there is such thing as a general factor of intelligence 2) IQ tests are designed to measure 'g' and are mostly accurate 3) IQ scores match general ideas of what intelligence is 4) IQ scores are stable, although not perfectly so 5) Properly administered IQ tests are not demonstrably biased against social, ethnic, economic or racial groups 6) Cognitive ability is substantially heritable What 4 ideas did the bell curve book propose - ANS 1) Cognitive elite- there is an emergence of a cognitive elite 2) Socioeconomic variables and IQ- individuals intelligence is more important than SES for predicting economic and social welfare 3) Race and intelligence- Asian-Americans have higher IQ than white Americans, African-Americans have lower 4) Proposed implications for social policy What were the main implications for social policy from the bell curve - ANS -population of those with lower IQ is increasing as women with a lower IQ tend to have more children -immigrants contribute towards this -increases societal problems caused by groups of people in America with lower intelligence What are the 3 main flaws in the stats and evidence used in the Bell Curve book - ANS 1) Correlation does not equal causation- bell curve said there were correlations between SES