Lecture 1: Introduction lecture
What is science? Trying to make sense of the world.
Views of reality
1. premodern: things are as they seem to be
2. modern: acknowledgment of human subjectivity
3. postmodern: there is no objective reality to be observed
How do we do research?
a. ordinary human inquiry
b. cause-effect
c. patterns of probabilistics
d. observations
sources of knowing
tradition: accepting the beliefs of the community
authority: judgements of experts
but can both lead to wrong knowledge.
Common mistakes in inquiry + solutions
1. inaccurate observations: measurement devices add precision
2. overgeneralization: repeat study to produce same results
3. selective observation: try to search deviant cases
4. illogical reasoning: use systems of logic, competition & replication.
2 criteria of science
logical support = must make sense
empirical support = must not contradict actual observations
foundation of social science
data collection, data analysis, theory
theory = systematic explanation of an aspect of life.
variables & the wheel of science
method solutions -variable language
variable = a logical set of attributes, categories and values.
attribute = a characteristic of a variable
dependent variable = are determined/ caused by something else.
independent variable = have no dependence, they are what they are.
pure research: basic/fundamental science for research; knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
applied research: putting research into practice.
the wheel of science
→ empirical data generalised → theories → hypothesis → observation →
,You can begin anywhere in the circle, but it leads to different things.
topics for evaluation research
1) need assessments
2) cost-benefit studies
3) monitoring studies
4) programmes/outcomes
→ evaluation is about measuring an outcome or effect of for example a policy.
Lecture 2 : Philosophy of science
The traditional model (has some of these characteristics)
● Deductive: science always starts with theory (Popper)
falsification - try to falsify the theory
● Nomothetic: causal models
● Quantitative: numerical variables
→ but there is more than this:
● positivism (Auguste Comte 1789 -1857: try to understand nature and find laws of nature and
sociological laws).
● Knowledge is the mirror of nature
● there are relations between (at least 3) variables, these can be explained through mathematical
formulas ( E=M*C2).
Other approaches of science
● Inductive: start with observations and develop theory
● idiographic: understanding cases
● Qualitative: verbal richness instead of mathematical precision.
3 philosophical concepts
epistemology: How to obtain knowledge about the world?
ontology: What is the nature of the (social) world? (nature of being - metaphysics)
axiology: What one ought to do or what is right? (the study of value and valuation)
→ the answers of these questions determine the starting point of your research. The different answers
lead to different paradigms.
Paradigm = a framework for observation and understanding which shapes what we see and how we
understand it. (example of the bunny- duck - image gestalt switch )
→ starting points of research (different ways of looking at science)
3 important paradigms
1. positivist social science =
2. interpretive / constructivist social science =
3. critical social science =
10 questions that are answered differently by each paradigm
, Positivism Constructivism/ Critical
interpretive
1. Reasons for To discover natural To understand and describe To smash myths and
research laws so that people can meaningful social action empower people to change
predict and control society
events (can fit conspiracy theory)
2. Nature of social Stable pre-existing Fluid definitions of a Multiple layers and
reality (ontology) patterns of order that situation created by human governed by hidden,
can be discovered. interaction underlying structures.
Science tries to show these.
3. Human nature Self-interested & Social beings who create Creative, adaptive people
rational who are shaped meaning by human with unrealized potential,
by external forces interaction trapped in illusion
4. human agency & Powerful external People have significant Bounded autonomy and free
free will social pressures shape volition; they have choice are structurally
people’s action; free freedom to make choices. limited, but the limits can be
(free will vs will is largely illusion moved.
determinism) (determinism)
5. role of common Clearly distinct from Powerful tool, everyday Common sense is a false
sense and less valid than theories used by ordinary beliefs that hide power and
science. people objective conditions
(Marxist)
6. Theory looks Logical, deductive A description of how a A critique that reveals true
like.. system of group’s meaning system is conditions and help people
interconnected generated and sustained take action
definitions, axioms and
laws
7. True Logically connected to Resonates or feels right to Supplies people with tools
explanations laws, about facts those who are being studies needed to change the world
8. Good evidence Is based on precise Embedded in context of Informed by a theory that
observations & fluid social interactions penetrated the surface level.
repeatable
9. relevance of Instrumental: Practical: knowledge helps Dialectical: knowledge lets
knowledge knowledge enables understand other’s life people see and alter deeper
people to control events worlds / experiences structures.
10. place for values science is value free, values are an integral part All science must begin with
(axiology) except when picking a of social life: no values are a value position: are wrong
topic superior. of right
Part B: Babbie chapter 2
To summarise:
What is science? Trying to make sense of the world.
Views of reality
1. premodern: things are as they seem to be
2. modern: acknowledgment of human subjectivity
3. postmodern: there is no objective reality to be observed
How do we do research?
a. ordinary human inquiry
b. cause-effect
c. patterns of probabilistics
d. observations
sources of knowing
tradition: accepting the beliefs of the community
authority: judgements of experts
but can both lead to wrong knowledge.
Common mistakes in inquiry + solutions
1. inaccurate observations: measurement devices add precision
2. overgeneralization: repeat study to produce same results
3. selective observation: try to search deviant cases
4. illogical reasoning: use systems of logic, competition & replication.
2 criteria of science
logical support = must make sense
empirical support = must not contradict actual observations
foundation of social science
data collection, data analysis, theory
theory = systematic explanation of an aspect of life.
variables & the wheel of science
method solutions -variable language
variable = a logical set of attributes, categories and values.
attribute = a characteristic of a variable
dependent variable = are determined/ caused by something else.
independent variable = have no dependence, they are what they are.
pure research: basic/fundamental science for research; knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
applied research: putting research into practice.
the wheel of science
→ empirical data generalised → theories → hypothesis → observation →
,You can begin anywhere in the circle, but it leads to different things.
topics for evaluation research
1) need assessments
2) cost-benefit studies
3) monitoring studies
4) programmes/outcomes
→ evaluation is about measuring an outcome or effect of for example a policy.
Lecture 2 : Philosophy of science
The traditional model (has some of these characteristics)
● Deductive: science always starts with theory (Popper)
falsification - try to falsify the theory
● Nomothetic: causal models
● Quantitative: numerical variables
→ but there is more than this:
● positivism (Auguste Comte 1789 -1857: try to understand nature and find laws of nature and
sociological laws).
● Knowledge is the mirror of nature
● there are relations between (at least 3) variables, these can be explained through mathematical
formulas ( E=M*C2).
Other approaches of science
● Inductive: start with observations and develop theory
● idiographic: understanding cases
● Qualitative: verbal richness instead of mathematical precision.
3 philosophical concepts
epistemology: How to obtain knowledge about the world?
ontology: What is the nature of the (social) world? (nature of being - metaphysics)
axiology: What one ought to do or what is right? (the study of value and valuation)
→ the answers of these questions determine the starting point of your research. The different answers
lead to different paradigms.
Paradigm = a framework for observation and understanding which shapes what we see and how we
understand it. (example of the bunny- duck - image gestalt switch )
→ starting points of research (different ways of looking at science)
3 important paradigms
1. positivist social science =
2. interpretive / constructivist social science =
3. critical social science =
10 questions that are answered differently by each paradigm
, Positivism Constructivism/ Critical
interpretive
1. Reasons for To discover natural To understand and describe To smash myths and
research laws so that people can meaningful social action empower people to change
predict and control society
events (can fit conspiracy theory)
2. Nature of social Stable pre-existing Fluid definitions of a Multiple layers and
reality (ontology) patterns of order that situation created by human governed by hidden,
can be discovered. interaction underlying structures.
Science tries to show these.
3. Human nature Self-interested & Social beings who create Creative, adaptive people
rational who are shaped meaning by human with unrealized potential,
by external forces interaction trapped in illusion
4. human agency & Powerful external People have significant Bounded autonomy and free
free will social pressures shape volition; they have choice are structurally
people’s action; free freedom to make choices. limited, but the limits can be
(free will vs will is largely illusion moved.
determinism) (determinism)
5. role of common Clearly distinct from Powerful tool, everyday Common sense is a false
sense and less valid than theories used by ordinary beliefs that hide power and
science. people objective conditions
(Marxist)
6. Theory looks Logical, deductive A description of how a A critique that reveals true
like.. system of group’s meaning system is conditions and help people
interconnected generated and sustained take action
definitions, axioms and
laws
7. True Logically connected to Resonates or feels right to Supplies people with tools
explanations laws, about facts those who are being studies needed to change the world
8. Good evidence Is based on precise Embedded in context of Informed by a theory that
observations & fluid social interactions penetrated the surface level.
repeatable
9. relevance of Instrumental: Practical: knowledge helps Dialectical: knowledge lets
knowledge knowledge enables understand other’s life people see and alter deeper
people to control events worlds / experiences structures.
10. place for values science is value free, values are an integral part All science must begin with
(axiology) except when picking a of social life: no values are a value position: are wrong
topic superior. of right
Part B: Babbie chapter 2
To summarise:
