Praxis 5362: Foundations of Language Learning Rated A+

Praxis 5362: Foundations of Language Learning Rated A+ Stages of First-Language Acquisition babbling stage: 6-8 months old, begins making repetitive patters of sound one-word stage: 9-18 months; begins to make basic words stems and single open-class words two-word stage; 18-24 months; beings making miniature sentences with simple semantic relations telegraphic stage: 24-30 months; begins to express sentence structures with lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemes multiword stage: 30+ months; the characteristic grammatical or functional structures of the primary language emerge and are incorporated Behaviorist Model Skinner; individuals learn language as a direct response to stimuli Nativist Model Chomsky; individuals are born with a universal grammar wired into their brains, which they use as a template for language acquisition; all a child needs to learn is the specific ways in which his native language utilizes the rules of universal grammar; the principles of language are innate and the specific parameters of each language are acquired in the first few years of live Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky; states that learning begins as a result of interpersonal communication and is then internalized as intrapersonal zone of proximal development describes the difference between what person knows and what he could know if given a bit of assistance from someone else; scaffolding, modeling, providing cues, and encouragement Ecological Model Bronfenbrenner; development in four nested levels: microsystem: child's immediate environment mesosystem: interactions between components of the microsystem exosystem: more general elements of the child's environment macrosystem: overarching environmental influences, like cultural beliefs Steven Pinker agreed with Chomsky that human beings are born with an innate capacity for learning and understanding language; he added that idea that this capacity is the result of millions of years of evolution; people develop a predisposition towards language because communication increased their odds of survival Jim Cummins BICS and CALP BICS: use of language in informal and social situations CALP: language in the classroom Social Interactionist Model interpretation of language acquisition emphasizes the relationship of the newborn with his caregivers; child will learn to speak in the manner and syntax of those people who speak to him; child will begin to establish goals in the world and will need to devise linguistic strategies for achieving them; child will draw on the linguistic and nonlinguistic utterances that he has heard, and will use this information in combination with other knowledge to achieve his ends Cognitive Model Piaget; individuals develop linguistic skills in order to control their environment sensorimotor intelligence: 0-2yrs; child learns to physically handle the object of the external world preoperational thought: 2-7 yrs; child improves physically and begins to think conceptually concrete operations: 7-11 yrs; child develops logical thinking skills formal operations: 11-15 yrs; child begins to think abstrctly and can develop mental hypotheses assimilation phase child uses a known word to describe a new object or concept until he is corrected accommodation phase child learns to correct his own errors of linguistic identification equilibrium phase child uses the right word to describe the object Acquisition Learning Model of Second Language Learning acquisition: subconscious process by which vocabulary and the basic rules of grammar are slowly and steadily absorbed learning: a conscious study and knowledge of vocabulary and the rules of grammar Input Hypothesis Krashen; individuals need to be given information slightly above their ability level in a given language; learner needs to understand the majority of what he is hearing; the addition of a small amount of incomprehensible information will encourage the listener to continue expanding his vocabulary and overall sense of grammatical structures; self instruction techniques like reciprocal teaching and scaffolding are essential parts Monitor Hyphothesis Krashen; how learning grammatical rules affects language acquisition; when an individual learns rules of grammar, he is able to monitor consciously the discourse he hears in the future; people will use grammatical rules to monitor their speech to a greater or lesser degree depending on temperament; extroverted individuals tend to ignore the rules of grammar and simply plunge ahead; introverted individuals strive for perfection in their speech; the basic rules of grammar will be unconsciously acquired over time regardless of whether they are ever explicitly learned Sociocognitive Approach true competence is demonstrated in the ability to express oneself in different social contexts; emphasizes conversation in social contexts; social necessity is the primary motivator of language development Natural Order Hypothesis Krashen; assets that the acquisition of a second language will follow predictable patterns; certain grammatical structures will almost always be acquired before others, regardless of the age of the learner; supports the idea that bilingual programs should follow a specific order of instruction; Krashen felt that in order to achieve the most rapid and comprehensive acquisition of a second language, a rigid sequence of grammatical instruction should be avoided in favor of immersion and interactive performance Affective Filter Hypothesis a number of emotional factors contribute to the acquisition of a second language: self-confidence exert significant influence on the ability to internalize vocabulary and grammatical rules William Labov established African-American Vernacular English as a legitimate dialect; has its own internal grammatical and syntactical rules; sociolinguist Joshua Fishman concentrated on the evolution of languages; Gaelic, Yiddish, and Welsh; strong advocate for the survival of obscure languages; sociolinguist Dell Hymes sociolinguist primarily concerned with the interactions between language, society, and cultural context; came up with the SPEAKING mnemonic for the essential characteristics of discourse: Setting and Scene; Participants; Ends; Act sequence; Key; Instrumentalities; Norms, and Genre Basil Bernstein sociolinguist famous for distinguishing between the restricted code, which us used by people who have a similar cultural background or know each other well, and the elaborated code, which is used by people who are unfamiliar with one another or with one another's culture Sheltered English Approach characterized by comprehensible input, meaning that all the information disseminated in the class should be understandable to the students; small-group and cooperative learning; hands-on activities; teachers use student background knowledge and experience to determine activities; teachers should incorporate a variety of instructional strategies and frequent formal and informal assessments; explicitly state the lesson objectives Components of Sheltered English Instruction use a variety of strategies and materials; requires frequent hands-on activities; modeling and demonstrations; incorporate maps and gloves; visuals Language and Conceptual Development teachers need to understand the relationship between language development and conceptual development; a student's mastery of language must increase along with his mastery of concepts; teacher should known language to describe an unknown concept; should use known concepts to illustrate unknown concepts Making input comprehensible explicitly define vocabulary; manipulatives and graphical depictions; create a context in which students can solve problems; design activities that can be performed cooperatives to foster group understanding Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English SDAIE Sheltered Instruction vs ESL Sheltered Instruction: focus on mastery of the content area ESL: focus on the development of English skills Submersion Programs provide very little structured support for the acquisition of English, with students being thrust directly into content area instruction at their grade level Transitional ESL Education receive content-area instruction in both L1 and L2 according to their proficiency; over time the use of L2 is increased; to begin with, students are assessed in L1 and given direct instruction to help them master the CALP required for each content area; considered one of the more beneficial forms of education for non-English speaking students Dual Immersion Programs groups of students with different first languages are placed together and encouraged to learn each other's native tongue Basic orientations for teaching ESL Structural/Linguistic: based on comparisons between the structures of different languages; isolate grammatical and syntactic elements in each language and teach in a prescribed sequence Cognitive: entail objectives that enable the student to make generalizations about the rules of English; emphasis on individual learning style Affective/Motivational: emphasizes the predispositions of the student that can enhance or inhibit learning Functional/Communicative: involves selecting language structures on the basis of their utility in achieving a communicative purpose Audiolingual Method relies on repetition of structural patterns; grammar is typically taught inductively, meaning students are informed of the rules of grammar after they have intuitively learned proper expression; new material is typically presented in a dialogue format and essential linguistic structures and skills are placed in a set sequence Total Physical Response (TPR) not required to produce language, either orally or in written form, until they are ready; command forms are typically used to convey information; kinesthetic learning style; teacher gives the command performs the accompanying actions; the teacher then says the command and both the teacher and the students perform the actions; the teacher then says the command as students perform the actions; the teacher tells one student to perform the actions; and finally, the students give one another commands or command the teacher to perform the action Grammar Translation Approach very little active use of L2; vocabulary is taught in list format; students provided with detailed explanation of grammatical rules; very little attention given to spoken forms of the language; almost no instruction in pronunciation is given; almost all work in class involves translating sentences from one language to another Direct Approach lessons begin with a dialogue incorporating English...translation point...students learn the rules of grammar through induction..they generalize the rules from practice and experience Reading Approach appropriate for those who will not be living in an English-speaking community; Grammar instruction is limited to what is necessary for reading comprehension and fluency; constant emphasis on vocabulary;rely on translation from English into L1 of the student Community Language Learning Approach most important thing is to lower the affective filter and gradually introduce to a linguistic community in English. 5 basic stages: 1: student is completely dependent on the teacher 2: student begins to have contact with other members of the target linguistic group 3: student begins to speak directly to the members of the target linguistic group 4: can speak freely and assume that the members of the target linguistic group understand him 5: student refines his linguistic skills Functional Notional Approach emphasizes a strictly organized syllabus of language; divides a language into discrete units of analysis, usually by social context; specific units of instruction are situations in which the student will be forced to express himself in English; intent is to equip students with appropriate notions for every common social situation five major functional categories of discourse: personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, imaginative exponent the statement that is appropriate to a given function, situation, and topic code the shared language of a community of speakers code switching the process by which individuals shift the tone or formality of their speech in order to convey hierarchy, bonding, or some other interpersonal relation Marie M. Clay originator of the reading recovery movement continuous and specific assessment, which enables teachers to diagnose reading problems early on Priscilla Vail expert on dyslexia; advocates whole language approach Marilyn Jager Adams established basic criteria for early reading success and helped to create voice recognition software for developing readers SQ3R System survey, question, read, recite, and review formula for in-depth reading QAR System question-answer relationships 4 types of questions: 1. right there 2. think and search 3. author and you 4. on my own Indicators of reading fluency accuracy, rate and prosody accuracy the correct decoding and recognition of words rate the speed at which words are recognized correctly automaticity the combination of exceptional accuracy and a rapid rate of reading prosody the dramatic and artful reading style that improves the attention and understanding of the listener frustration reading level student cannot understand or pronounce at least 90 percent of the word in the text and cannot answer at least 60 percent of the grade-level reading comprehension questions Models of Reading Instruction Emergent Literacy, Language Acquistion, Reading Readiness Basic Concepts of Print Clay; 1. meaning of print 2. direction of text 3. letter, word, and sentence representation 4. book orientation