CHAPTER 1
What Is an Argument? (And What Is Not?)
The most important ideas in this chapter are:
(1) Arguments can be given for our beliefs, and the fact that we have opinions and 'have a right
to our opinions' does not preclude giving such arguments.
(2) These arguments can be better or worse and we can reach informed judgments about what
makes them better or worse.
(3) To offer an argument for a claim, C, is to put forward other claims, PI, P2, etc, as reasons
supporting C. (4) The premises are supposed to support the conclusion; the idea is that one
reasons from the premises to the conclusion.
Obstacles frequently encountered in connection with this material are:
(1) General relativism;
(2) Relativism supported by cliches such as "it's all a matter of opinion," "isn't it just a matter of
opinion?", "that's just his opinion," "everyone has a right to his opinion," and so on;
(3) Relativism supported by the idea that it would be rude to disagree with someone else;
(3) An inability to pick out arguments;
(4) A tendency to reverse the direction in arguments or not understand that there should be any
direction and, thus, to confuse the conclusion with the premises;
(5) A tendency to think that every passage must contain either an argument or an explanation.
If feasible, one might conduct a general discussion on the opinion/relativism issues. With regard
to argument structure, if students are having trouble with this, one might provide extra examples
and recommend some strategy such as underlining all conclusions in red and all premises in
green. One could really emphasize indicator words and, if providing extra examples, make sure
these contain many of these words.
Exercise 1
1. There is no argument here. The first sentence is a factual statement and the second offers an
informal definition.
2. Answer in text.
3. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that no one can know any claim
with certainty. The other three sentences are premises, put forward to support that conclusion.
4. Answer in text.
5. This passage does not contain an argument. There is merely a statement that one person is a
better tennis player than another. No support is provided for the claim made.
6. Answer in text.
7. This passage contains an argument. The indicator word "so" precedes the conclusion, which is
that no atheist can demonstrate his loyalty to the state. Note: in identifying this statement as the
conclusion, adapted from John Locke, we are not implying that the statement is true.
8. This passage does contain an argument. The first part of the sentence is the conclusion, and the
rest, following the word “because” supplies a reason for that conclusion.
9. Answer in text.
10. Answer in text.
,11. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is, "You also need to keep toxic
radioactive substances from the workers." The support is signaled by the presence of "Because" at
the beginning of the second sentence. Note: The concept of a subargument is not introduced until
the next chapter and there is really no need to bring it in here. However, if especially perceptive
students raise a question about the role of the last sentence in the passage, it can be explained in
this way: The words "You see" at the beginning of the third sentence also serve as a premise
indicator. However, here the intended support is not for the main conclusion, but for the
statement, "The dose [of toxic radioactive substances] that federal regulations allow workers to
get is sufficient to create a genetic hazard to the whole human species."
12. This passage does not contain an argument. It offers practical advice on what is needed for
long-term business success, but does not provide any premises offering reasons to back up that
advice.
13. Answer in text.
14. There is an argument. The premise is that I shall pass through this world but once; this
premise is expressed in the first sentence and again, in slightly different words, in the last part of
the second sentence in “I shall not pass this way again.” The conclusion is that any kindness I can
do should be done at once, not deferred or neglected.
15. Answer in text.
16. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is the first parts of the sentence,
“knowledge is happiness.” The premise is expressed in the rest of the sentence.
17. This passage does not contain an argument.
18. Answer in text.
19. This passage does not contain an argument. It consists of a series of questions.
Exercise 2: Part A
1. Answer in text.
2. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is the first statement. The sentence, "This
point is quite easy to prove," indicates that support for the conclusion is coming, and the reason is
provided in the third sentence.
3. Answer in text.
4. Answer in text.
5. Answer in text.
6. This passage contains an argument; two reasons are given for the conclusion, which is that one
should not despair. Why not? First, because it would be unhelpful; second, because there is not
enough time.
7. Answer in text.
8. This passage contains an argument for the conclusion that human beings are not the only
animals that communicate with each other. The premise state that dolphins, whales, elephants,
and even bees communicate with each other.
9. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that the local hospital will not
manage to prevent the spread of disease on its premises. The indicator word "so" precedes the
conclusion. The first two sentences are premises.
10. Answer in text.
11. This passage does not contain an argument. It offers a favorable description of Miller's
,writing style.
12. Answer in text.
13. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is "Licensing nuclear power plants is
licensing murder." The first two statements are premises put forward to support that conclusion.
14. Answer in text.
15. Answer in text.
16. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that one is not an isolated
individual but rather a member of a larger society. The premise is that one's life, security, liberty
and happiness depend on the cooperation of other people.
17. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is, "Marketing practices should not
induce mothers who otherwise would be willing and able to breast-feed to switch to the bottle."
The second, third, and fourth sentences are the premises.
18. Answer in text.
19. Answer in text.
Exercise 2: Part B
This exercise requires student answers with regard to the contexts of explanation and argument.
, CHAPTER 2
Pinning Down Argument Structure
In this chapter, many diagrams have been included, since they are often helpful in providing a
sense of the flow in argument - the fact that one is supposed to move from the premises to the
conclusion. Students are not asked to draw these diagrams in exercises, because many passages
contain subtle ambiguities and diagramming can raise controversies and difficulties that might
pose discouraging obstacles at this stage.
The fundamental ideas in this chapter are:
(1) Before evaluating an argument, we have to understand it.
(2) Standardizing arguments, representing their premises and conclusions in clear language and
structured order, is fundamentally important for understanding them.
(4) Discourse that includes argument may also include material that is not part of the argument.
(3) Arguments may contain subarguments.
(4) Arguments may contain unstated premises and conclusions.
(5) Visual images may be accompanied by arguments (especially in a format that includes words,
such as the cartoon), but a picture by itself does not constitute an argument.
Difficulties may include:
(1) A tendency to push ahead and make evaluational comments without restricting oneself to the
task of identifying and stating the premises and conclusion;
(2) A tendency to add missing premises liberally and shift from understanding an argument to
creating a different argument, fixing the original thing up so as to suit one’s own tastes. Students
should be reminded that charity does not extend this far, and that they are asked to understand
and represent an argument presented to them and not, at this point, asked to replace the presented
argument with one they have invented;
(3) A tendency to add missing conclusions liberally and turn everything into an argument, even
when the original context and wording provide no good reason for doing so;
(4) Impatience with the fussiness of standardization;
(5) Difficulty in understanding the nature of, and details of, rhetorical flourishes - particularly for
those for whom English is a second language. Conclusions may be expressed in rhetorical
questions, commands, or even exclamations when these, in context, can be interpreted as making
statements.
Suggestions for livening up this material:
(1) Have students bring material from a newspaper or magazine, or another course they are
taking;
(2) Have students bring cartoons or ads with visual material and discuss whether, and why, it
might be reasonable to read in conclusions or premises.
(3) Do role plays to appreciate the pragmatic significance between scope qualification and
hedging with regard to degrees of certainty.
Chapter 2, Exercise 1
What Is an Argument? (And What Is Not?)
The most important ideas in this chapter are:
(1) Arguments can be given for our beliefs, and the fact that we have opinions and 'have a right
to our opinions' does not preclude giving such arguments.
(2) These arguments can be better or worse and we can reach informed judgments about what
makes them better or worse.
(3) To offer an argument for a claim, C, is to put forward other claims, PI, P2, etc, as reasons
supporting C. (4) The premises are supposed to support the conclusion; the idea is that one
reasons from the premises to the conclusion.
Obstacles frequently encountered in connection with this material are:
(1) General relativism;
(2) Relativism supported by cliches such as "it's all a matter of opinion," "isn't it just a matter of
opinion?", "that's just his opinion," "everyone has a right to his opinion," and so on;
(3) Relativism supported by the idea that it would be rude to disagree with someone else;
(3) An inability to pick out arguments;
(4) A tendency to reverse the direction in arguments or not understand that there should be any
direction and, thus, to confuse the conclusion with the premises;
(5) A tendency to think that every passage must contain either an argument or an explanation.
If feasible, one might conduct a general discussion on the opinion/relativism issues. With regard
to argument structure, if students are having trouble with this, one might provide extra examples
and recommend some strategy such as underlining all conclusions in red and all premises in
green. One could really emphasize indicator words and, if providing extra examples, make sure
these contain many of these words.
Exercise 1
1. There is no argument here. The first sentence is a factual statement and the second offers an
informal definition.
2. Answer in text.
3. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that no one can know any claim
with certainty. The other three sentences are premises, put forward to support that conclusion.
4. Answer in text.
5. This passage does not contain an argument. There is merely a statement that one person is a
better tennis player than another. No support is provided for the claim made.
6. Answer in text.
7. This passage contains an argument. The indicator word "so" precedes the conclusion, which is
that no atheist can demonstrate his loyalty to the state. Note: in identifying this statement as the
conclusion, adapted from John Locke, we are not implying that the statement is true.
8. This passage does contain an argument. The first part of the sentence is the conclusion, and the
rest, following the word “because” supplies a reason for that conclusion.
9. Answer in text.
10. Answer in text.
,11. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is, "You also need to keep toxic
radioactive substances from the workers." The support is signaled by the presence of "Because" at
the beginning of the second sentence. Note: The concept of a subargument is not introduced until
the next chapter and there is really no need to bring it in here. However, if especially perceptive
students raise a question about the role of the last sentence in the passage, it can be explained in
this way: The words "You see" at the beginning of the third sentence also serve as a premise
indicator. However, here the intended support is not for the main conclusion, but for the
statement, "The dose [of toxic radioactive substances] that federal regulations allow workers to
get is sufficient to create a genetic hazard to the whole human species."
12. This passage does not contain an argument. It offers practical advice on what is needed for
long-term business success, but does not provide any premises offering reasons to back up that
advice.
13. Answer in text.
14. There is an argument. The premise is that I shall pass through this world but once; this
premise is expressed in the first sentence and again, in slightly different words, in the last part of
the second sentence in “I shall not pass this way again.” The conclusion is that any kindness I can
do should be done at once, not deferred or neglected.
15. Answer in text.
16. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is the first parts of the sentence,
“knowledge is happiness.” The premise is expressed in the rest of the sentence.
17. This passage does not contain an argument.
18. Answer in text.
19. This passage does not contain an argument. It consists of a series of questions.
Exercise 2: Part A
1. Answer in text.
2. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is the first statement. The sentence, "This
point is quite easy to prove," indicates that support for the conclusion is coming, and the reason is
provided in the third sentence.
3. Answer in text.
4. Answer in text.
5. Answer in text.
6. This passage contains an argument; two reasons are given for the conclusion, which is that one
should not despair. Why not? First, because it would be unhelpful; second, because there is not
enough time.
7. Answer in text.
8. This passage contains an argument for the conclusion that human beings are not the only
animals that communicate with each other. The premise state that dolphins, whales, elephants,
and even bees communicate with each other.
9. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that the local hospital will not
manage to prevent the spread of disease on its premises. The indicator word "so" precedes the
conclusion. The first two sentences are premises.
10. Answer in text.
11. This passage does not contain an argument. It offers a favorable description of Miller's
,writing style.
12. Answer in text.
13. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is "Licensing nuclear power plants is
licensing murder." The first two statements are premises put forward to support that conclusion.
14. Answer in text.
15. Answer in text.
16. This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that one is not an isolated
individual but rather a member of a larger society. The premise is that one's life, security, liberty
and happiness depend on the cooperation of other people.
17. This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is, "Marketing practices should not
induce mothers who otherwise would be willing and able to breast-feed to switch to the bottle."
The second, third, and fourth sentences are the premises.
18. Answer in text.
19. Answer in text.
Exercise 2: Part B
This exercise requires student answers with regard to the contexts of explanation and argument.
, CHAPTER 2
Pinning Down Argument Structure
In this chapter, many diagrams have been included, since they are often helpful in providing a
sense of the flow in argument - the fact that one is supposed to move from the premises to the
conclusion. Students are not asked to draw these diagrams in exercises, because many passages
contain subtle ambiguities and diagramming can raise controversies and difficulties that might
pose discouraging obstacles at this stage.
The fundamental ideas in this chapter are:
(1) Before evaluating an argument, we have to understand it.
(2) Standardizing arguments, representing their premises and conclusions in clear language and
structured order, is fundamentally important for understanding them.
(4) Discourse that includes argument may also include material that is not part of the argument.
(3) Arguments may contain subarguments.
(4) Arguments may contain unstated premises and conclusions.
(5) Visual images may be accompanied by arguments (especially in a format that includes words,
such as the cartoon), but a picture by itself does not constitute an argument.
Difficulties may include:
(1) A tendency to push ahead and make evaluational comments without restricting oneself to the
task of identifying and stating the premises and conclusion;
(2) A tendency to add missing premises liberally and shift from understanding an argument to
creating a different argument, fixing the original thing up so as to suit one’s own tastes. Students
should be reminded that charity does not extend this far, and that they are asked to understand
and represent an argument presented to them and not, at this point, asked to replace the presented
argument with one they have invented;
(3) A tendency to add missing conclusions liberally and turn everything into an argument, even
when the original context and wording provide no good reason for doing so;
(4) Impatience with the fussiness of standardization;
(5) Difficulty in understanding the nature of, and details of, rhetorical flourishes - particularly for
those for whom English is a second language. Conclusions may be expressed in rhetorical
questions, commands, or even exclamations when these, in context, can be interpreted as making
statements.
Suggestions for livening up this material:
(1) Have students bring material from a newspaper or magazine, or another course they are
taking;
(2) Have students bring cartoons or ads with visual material and discuss whether, and why, it
might be reasonable to read in conclusions or premises.
(3) Do role plays to appreciate the pragmatic significance between scope qualification and
hedging with regard to degrees of certainty.
Chapter 2, Exercise 1
