NU PATHO STUDY GUIDE UNIT 5 WITH
ANSWERS
◉ (P. 1395) Mouth
Answer: reservoir for chewing and mixing food with saliva. 3 pairs
salivary glands (submandibular, sublingual, and parotid).
◉ The esophagus and Stomach
Answer: A hollow muscular tube that controls swallowing
substances from oropharynx to stomach. Each end of the
esophagus has a sphincter: cricopharyngeal muscle and cardiac
sphincter. (P. 1397)
The stomach is a hollow muscular organ that stores food during
eating, secretes digestive juices, mixes food with juices, and
propels partially digested food (chyme) into the duodenum of
small intestine.
◉ (P. 1400) The small intestine
Answer: is about 5 to 6 m long and is functionally divided into
three segments: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The
duodenum essential role in mixing food with digestive juices from
the liver and pancreas. The jejunum and ileum facilitate intestinal
motility and support blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. The
peritoneum is the serous membrane surrounding the organs of
the abdomen and lining the abdominopelvic cavity.
,A central lacteal, or lymphatic capillary is contained within each
villus and is important for the absorption & transport of fat
molecules. A person who has problems with lacteals will have
alterations in fat absorption. Digested fats move into the lacteals
and eventually reach the liver through the systemic circulation.
◉ (P. 1408) The large intestine
Answer: is approximately 1.5 m long and consists of the cecum,
appendix, colon, rectum, and anal canal. The cecum is a pouch that
receives chyme from the ileum. Attached to the cecum is the
vermiform appendix, has little or no physiologic function. From
the cecum, chyme enters the colon, four-parts that descends to the
anal canal: ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon,
and sigmoid colon. Most of the water is absorbed in the colon by
diffusion and active transport. By the time the fecal mass enters
the sigmoid colon, the mass consists entirely of wastes and is
called the feces. The gastrocolic reflex initiates propulsion in the
entire colon, usually during or immediately after eating, when
chyme enters from the ileum. This reflex causes the fecal mass to
pass rapidly into the sigmoid colon and rectum, stimulating
defecation (rectosphincteric reflex). Defecation is facilitated by
squatting or sitting because these positions straighten the angle
between the rectum and anal canal and increase the efficiency of
straining.
(P.1409) Bacteria from stomach to distal colon. Stomach is
relatively sterile due to acid production. Bile acid secretion,
intestinal motility, and antibody production suppress bacterial
growth in the duodenum, and in the duodenum and jejunum there
is a low concentration of aerobes: streptococci, lactobacilli,
staphylococci, enterobacteria, and Bacteroides. Anaerobes are
,found distal to ileocecal valve and consists 95% of fecal flora and
1/3 of the solid bulk of feces: Bacteroides, clostridia, anaerobic
lactobacilli, and coliforms are the most common microorganisms
from the ileum to the cecum.
◉ (P. 1409) The liver, gallbladder, and exocrine pancreas
Answer: all secrete substances necessary for the digestion of
chyme. These secretions are delivered to the duodenum through
ducts. The liver produces bile, which contains salts necessary for
fat digestion and absorption. Between meals bile is stored in the
gallbladder. The exocrine pancreas produces enzymes needed for
the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The
exocrine pancreas also produces an alkaline fluid that neutralizes
chyme, creating a duodenal pH that supports enzymatic action.
The liver receives nutrients absorbed by the small intestine and
metabolizes or synthesizes these nutrients into forms that can be
absorbed by the body's cells. It then releases the nutrients into
the bloodstream or stores them for later use.
Kupffer cells (macrophages) in the sinusoids of the liver remove
bacteria and foreign particles from blood in the hepatic
circulation.
◉ ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS Know Ankylosing spondylitis:
pathophysiology, etiology, prevention, clinical manifestations,
diagnostics, treatment and complications (pg. 1572-1574)
Answer: is the most common of a group of inflammatory
arthropathies known as spondyloarthropathies. It is a chronic
inflammatory joint disease characterized by stiffening and fusion
(ankylosis) of the spine and sacroiliac joints.
, Patho: The exact cause of AS is unknown but its high association
with the histocompatibility antigen human leukocyte antigen
(HLAB27) has been known for decades. New research has shown
that misfolding of HLA-B27 occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER). As misfolded proteins accumulate, it results in a stress
response of the ER and increased production of interleukin-23
(IL-23), a potent cytokine that may also act on T-helper 17 cells,
promoting their survival. Th17 cells, in turn, produce the
inflammatory cytokine. In AS, the primary pathological problem is
uncontrolled bone formation rather than bone destruction seen
with most other types of arthritis. The end results of AS are
fibrosis, ossification, and fusion of the joint, primarily the
sacroiliac joints and the vertebral column.
In the early phases of AS, T cells and macrophages invade and
cause erosion of the cartilage at different sites. AS involves
inflammation of fibrocartilage in cartilaginous joints, primarily
the vertebrae. The fibrous tissue of the joint, capsule, the cartilage
that surrounds intervertebral disks, the enthuses, and periosteum
are infiltrated by inflammatory cells. As inflammatory cells
(chiefly macrophages) and lymphocytes infiltrate and erode bode
and fibrocartilage in joint structures, repair begins. Fibroblasts
synthesize and secrete collagen. The collagen becomes organized
into fibrous scar tissue that eventually undergoes calcification and
ossification.
All the cartilaginous structures of the joint are replaced by
ossified scar tissue, causing the joint t fuse, or lose flexibility. Bone
repair changes the contour
◉ BILIRUBINBilirubin, what is it? Bilirubin cycle? Pg. 1411-1412
ANSWERS
◉ (P. 1395) Mouth
Answer: reservoir for chewing and mixing food with saliva. 3 pairs
salivary glands (submandibular, sublingual, and parotid).
◉ The esophagus and Stomach
Answer: A hollow muscular tube that controls swallowing
substances from oropharynx to stomach. Each end of the
esophagus has a sphincter: cricopharyngeal muscle and cardiac
sphincter. (P. 1397)
The stomach is a hollow muscular organ that stores food during
eating, secretes digestive juices, mixes food with juices, and
propels partially digested food (chyme) into the duodenum of
small intestine.
◉ (P. 1400) The small intestine
Answer: is about 5 to 6 m long and is functionally divided into
three segments: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The
duodenum essential role in mixing food with digestive juices from
the liver and pancreas. The jejunum and ileum facilitate intestinal
motility and support blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. The
peritoneum is the serous membrane surrounding the organs of
the abdomen and lining the abdominopelvic cavity.
,A central lacteal, or lymphatic capillary is contained within each
villus and is important for the absorption & transport of fat
molecules. A person who has problems with lacteals will have
alterations in fat absorption. Digested fats move into the lacteals
and eventually reach the liver through the systemic circulation.
◉ (P. 1408) The large intestine
Answer: is approximately 1.5 m long and consists of the cecum,
appendix, colon, rectum, and anal canal. The cecum is a pouch that
receives chyme from the ileum. Attached to the cecum is the
vermiform appendix, has little or no physiologic function. From
the cecum, chyme enters the colon, four-parts that descends to the
anal canal: ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon,
and sigmoid colon. Most of the water is absorbed in the colon by
diffusion and active transport. By the time the fecal mass enters
the sigmoid colon, the mass consists entirely of wastes and is
called the feces. The gastrocolic reflex initiates propulsion in the
entire colon, usually during or immediately after eating, when
chyme enters from the ileum. This reflex causes the fecal mass to
pass rapidly into the sigmoid colon and rectum, stimulating
defecation (rectosphincteric reflex). Defecation is facilitated by
squatting or sitting because these positions straighten the angle
between the rectum and anal canal and increase the efficiency of
straining.
(P.1409) Bacteria from stomach to distal colon. Stomach is
relatively sterile due to acid production. Bile acid secretion,
intestinal motility, and antibody production suppress bacterial
growth in the duodenum, and in the duodenum and jejunum there
is a low concentration of aerobes: streptococci, lactobacilli,
staphylococci, enterobacteria, and Bacteroides. Anaerobes are
,found distal to ileocecal valve and consists 95% of fecal flora and
1/3 of the solid bulk of feces: Bacteroides, clostridia, anaerobic
lactobacilli, and coliforms are the most common microorganisms
from the ileum to the cecum.
◉ (P. 1409) The liver, gallbladder, and exocrine pancreas
Answer: all secrete substances necessary for the digestion of
chyme. These secretions are delivered to the duodenum through
ducts. The liver produces bile, which contains salts necessary for
fat digestion and absorption. Between meals bile is stored in the
gallbladder. The exocrine pancreas produces enzymes needed for
the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The
exocrine pancreas also produces an alkaline fluid that neutralizes
chyme, creating a duodenal pH that supports enzymatic action.
The liver receives nutrients absorbed by the small intestine and
metabolizes or synthesizes these nutrients into forms that can be
absorbed by the body's cells. It then releases the nutrients into
the bloodstream or stores them for later use.
Kupffer cells (macrophages) in the sinusoids of the liver remove
bacteria and foreign particles from blood in the hepatic
circulation.
◉ ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS Know Ankylosing spondylitis:
pathophysiology, etiology, prevention, clinical manifestations,
diagnostics, treatment and complications (pg. 1572-1574)
Answer: is the most common of a group of inflammatory
arthropathies known as spondyloarthropathies. It is a chronic
inflammatory joint disease characterized by stiffening and fusion
(ankylosis) of the spine and sacroiliac joints.
, Patho: The exact cause of AS is unknown but its high association
with the histocompatibility antigen human leukocyte antigen
(HLAB27) has been known for decades. New research has shown
that misfolding of HLA-B27 occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER). As misfolded proteins accumulate, it results in a stress
response of the ER and increased production of interleukin-23
(IL-23), a potent cytokine that may also act on T-helper 17 cells,
promoting their survival. Th17 cells, in turn, produce the
inflammatory cytokine. In AS, the primary pathological problem is
uncontrolled bone formation rather than bone destruction seen
with most other types of arthritis. The end results of AS are
fibrosis, ossification, and fusion of the joint, primarily the
sacroiliac joints and the vertebral column.
In the early phases of AS, T cells and macrophages invade and
cause erosion of the cartilage at different sites. AS involves
inflammation of fibrocartilage in cartilaginous joints, primarily
the vertebrae. The fibrous tissue of the joint, capsule, the cartilage
that surrounds intervertebral disks, the enthuses, and periosteum
are infiltrated by inflammatory cells. As inflammatory cells
(chiefly macrophages) and lymphocytes infiltrate and erode bode
and fibrocartilage in joint structures, repair begins. Fibroblasts
synthesize and secrete collagen. The collagen becomes organized
into fibrous scar tissue that eventually undergoes calcification and
ossification.
All the cartilaginous structures of the joint are replaced by
ossified scar tissue, causing the joint t fuse, or lose flexibility. Bone
repair changes the contour
◉ BILIRUBINBilirubin, what is it? Bilirubin cycle? Pg. 1411-1412
