Exam 1 1
I. Physiology (Animal)
a. The biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts
b. The study of how cells interact with their “environment” to obtain the things
required for life
c. Physiologist= interested in how things work
II. Exchange Systems
a. Any system that allows for the exchange of material (Vital Substances) from:
i. External to Internal Environment
ii. Internal to External Environment
b. Example Systems
i. Respiratory (O2/CO2)= exchange of gases (O2 in CO2 out)
ii. Digestive (nutrients/ water)= water and nutrients/ eliminates
iii. Urinary (excretion/water)= removes excess water and waste
iv. Circulatory (distribution)= distributes materials
v. Excretory (elimination)= Wastes from internal to external
III. Organization of Complex Biological Organisms
a. Four Levels of Organization:
i. Cellular Level- Basic Building Blocks
1. Cell= smallest unit capable of carrying out all life processes
2. Four Cell Types
a. Epithelial
b. Connective Tissue
c. Nerve
d. Muscle
ii. Tissue Level- Homogenous group of cells with common structure and
function
1. Ie: Nerve Tissue
iii. Organ Level- Organization of different tissues to perform specific
functions
1. IE: Muscle has different types of tissues
iv. System Level- Several organs organized in order to carry out major body
functions
IV. Basic Principles (All life…)
a. Aquatic
i. Body fluids in all animals have the same general composition
1. Water and Salts
2. Internal environment= extremely similar
3. Hypothesis- is that all have common ancestor from aquatic
environment
ii. Water is major component
1. 75% of body weight of humans
2. 99% of all molecules in humans
3. Salts (simple inorganic substances)=
a. only 0.75% of molecules in humans (K+/Na+/Cl-/Mg++)
4. Biochemical substances (proteins, nucleic acids) =
a. only 0.25% of molecules in humans
,Exam 1 2
b. Compartmentalized= Separation of substances into different compartments
i. Compartments:
1. Cell= the basic compartment/unit
2. Organelles
3. Major fluid compartments inside organisms:
a. Intracellular Fluid (ICF)= inside of cells
b. Extracellular Fluid (ECF)= outside of cells
i. Interstitial Fluid- ECF not in circulatory system
ii. Plasma- liquid portion of blood
ii. Asymmetric (Maintain Asymmetry)
1. What is inside one compartment may not be the same as the other
2. Energetically costly to maintain the distribution of ions between
different compartments
a. May pump against Gradient
b. Na+ most osmotically active in ECF
c. Ca low bc important for signaling
Compartment Sodium Potassium Calcium
ECF (outside) High Low Low (1-3 mM)
(100-140 mM) (1-10mM)
ICF (inside) Low High Very Low
(1-10 mM) (100-140mM) (1nM)
c. Same Fundamental Problems
i. Many animals solve in different ways
1. Adaptations
2. Can gain unique and distinctive insights by looking at different
animals
a. Comparative physiology
ii. Reproduction
1. How to continue a species is a fundamental problem all animals
share but may solve differently
iii. Challenge is how to maintain Asymmetry
1. Essential for physiological processes
2. Hard to transport substanes selectively between compartments
a. Trade- Offs
iv. Input of Energy
1. All life requires energy
a. Need energy to survive
2. Life= energetically unfavorable
3. ATP for cellular work
4. **See ATP/Respiration/MR
d. Constrained by Laws of Physics and Chemistry
i. Laws used to Accomplish Bodily functions
1. Ohm’s Law/Boyle’s Law/Ideal Gas Law
,Exam 1 3
2. Gravity
3. Kinetic and Potential Energies
4. Inertia/ Momentum/ Velocity/ Drag
5. Size Principle
ii. Cells can utilize thse laws to their advantage
1. Ie= signaling
iii. **Physical Environment
1. Governs what cells can and cannot accomplish
e. Tolerates a Limited Range of Conditions
i. Homeostasis
1. Process of maintaining below conditions within tolerable ranges
2. Maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment
a. Requires cell to cell communication
i. Mechanism to respond and restore
ii. Nervous, Hormonal, Intrinsic Systems
3. Requires Negative Feedback
ii. Conditions include:
1. Salts, H2O, O2, CO2, nutrients, waste elimination, temperature,
pH
a. *Within Range= not completely constant
V. Important Life Substances/ Processes
a. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
i. Principal form of energy used by cells
1. Comes from Nutrients and Food
2. ATP + H2O Hydrolyzed to ADP +Pi +ENERGY
a. Energy used for cellular work
ii. Stored in the animal
b. Cellular Respiration
i. Major pathway to get ATP
ii. Measure of O2 consumption= calculation of Metabolic Rate
iii. Aerobic Respiration (Oxygen)
1. Glucose CO2 + H2O (metabolic= produced by metabolism) +
38 ATP (net)
2. More Efficient and also produces Water= PLUS
3. Negatives:
a. Produces CO2 as waste which costs energy to get rid of
b. Very Slow
iv. Anaerobic Respiration (No Oxygen)
1. Glucose Lactic Acid + 2 ATP (net)
2. Very Fast= when need ATP quickly
3. Negatives:
a. Not very efficient
b. Lactic Acid is toxic= costs energy to get rid of
c. Metabolic Rate (MR)
i. Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
, Exam 1 4
1. Tells full aerobic metabolism of the animal
a. Younger= higher metabolic rate
ii. Measured as O2 consumption units of calories or kilocalories (1000cal)
iii. Sum of all energy-requiring biochemical reactions
1. Basal Metabolic Rate
2. Movement ie: muscle contraction
3. Heat Production
4. Anabolic Pathways ie: building biomass
d. Feedback Systems
i. Systems sense parameter in environment, make decision to make an action
to make the change, makes the change
ii. Components
1. Sensor = measures some aspect of the internal environment
2. Integrator = compares the sensor measurement to a reference value
(set point)
3. Effector = the output of the system that changes the internal
environment
iii. Negative Feedback (usually Homeostasis)
1. Produces opposite result of what happened
2. ** Effector counteracts initial Sensor stimulus
a. Thermostat
i. Temp Higher than set point must Decrease
ii. Temp Lower than set point must Increase
iv. Positive Feedback
1. Continues with same action
2. **Effector increases the initial Sensor stimulus
3. Leads to Rapid Changes
4. Example
a. Temperature increase measured by the sensor results in
effector causing further increase in temperature
e. Size Principle
i. Relationship between Surface Area and Volume
ii. SA/V approx. = 1/r
1. As r increases the relative surface area for exchange decreases
a. Larger the animal the less exchange
2. **Ability of animal to exchange with its environment
Large Animal/ Cell Small Animal
Exchange BAD GOOD
Substances
Retain GOOD BAD
Substances
VI. Physiological Ecology
a. Organisms relationship to its physiochemical environment
I. Physiology (Animal)
a. The biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts
b. The study of how cells interact with their “environment” to obtain the things
required for life
c. Physiologist= interested in how things work
II. Exchange Systems
a. Any system that allows for the exchange of material (Vital Substances) from:
i. External to Internal Environment
ii. Internal to External Environment
b. Example Systems
i. Respiratory (O2/CO2)= exchange of gases (O2 in CO2 out)
ii. Digestive (nutrients/ water)= water and nutrients/ eliminates
iii. Urinary (excretion/water)= removes excess water and waste
iv. Circulatory (distribution)= distributes materials
v. Excretory (elimination)= Wastes from internal to external
III. Organization of Complex Biological Organisms
a. Four Levels of Organization:
i. Cellular Level- Basic Building Blocks
1. Cell= smallest unit capable of carrying out all life processes
2. Four Cell Types
a. Epithelial
b. Connective Tissue
c. Nerve
d. Muscle
ii. Tissue Level- Homogenous group of cells with common structure and
function
1. Ie: Nerve Tissue
iii. Organ Level- Organization of different tissues to perform specific
functions
1. IE: Muscle has different types of tissues
iv. System Level- Several organs organized in order to carry out major body
functions
IV. Basic Principles (All life…)
a. Aquatic
i. Body fluids in all animals have the same general composition
1. Water and Salts
2. Internal environment= extremely similar
3. Hypothesis- is that all have common ancestor from aquatic
environment
ii. Water is major component
1. 75% of body weight of humans
2. 99% of all molecules in humans
3. Salts (simple inorganic substances)=
a. only 0.75% of molecules in humans (K+/Na+/Cl-/Mg++)
4. Biochemical substances (proteins, nucleic acids) =
a. only 0.25% of molecules in humans
,Exam 1 2
b. Compartmentalized= Separation of substances into different compartments
i. Compartments:
1. Cell= the basic compartment/unit
2. Organelles
3. Major fluid compartments inside organisms:
a. Intracellular Fluid (ICF)= inside of cells
b. Extracellular Fluid (ECF)= outside of cells
i. Interstitial Fluid- ECF not in circulatory system
ii. Plasma- liquid portion of blood
ii. Asymmetric (Maintain Asymmetry)
1. What is inside one compartment may not be the same as the other
2. Energetically costly to maintain the distribution of ions between
different compartments
a. May pump against Gradient
b. Na+ most osmotically active in ECF
c. Ca low bc important for signaling
Compartment Sodium Potassium Calcium
ECF (outside) High Low Low (1-3 mM)
(100-140 mM) (1-10mM)
ICF (inside) Low High Very Low
(1-10 mM) (100-140mM) (1nM)
c. Same Fundamental Problems
i. Many animals solve in different ways
1. Adaptations
2. Can gain unique and distinctive insights by looking at different
animals
a. Comparative physiology
ii. Reproduction
1. How to continue a species is a fundamental problem all animals
share but may solve differently
iii. Challenge is how to maintain Asymmetry
1. Essential for physiological processes
2. Hard to transport substanes selectively between compartments
a. Trade- Offs
iv. Input of Energy
1. All life requires energy
a. Need energy to survive
2. Life= energetically unfavorable
3. ATP for cellular work
4. **See ATP/Respiration/MR
d. Constrained by Laws of Physics and Chemistry
i. Laws used to Accomplish Bodily functions
1. Ohm’s Law/Boyle’s Law/Ideal Gas Law
,Exam 1 3
2. Gravity
3. Kinetic and Potential Energies
4. Inertia/ Momentum/ Velocity/ Drag
5. Size Principle
ii. Cells can utilize thse laws to their advantage
1. Ie= signaling
iii. **Physical Environment
1. Governs what cells can and cannot accomplish
e. Tolerates a Limited Range of Conditions
i. Homeostasis
1. Process of maintaining below conditions within tolerable ranges
2. Maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment
a. Requires cell to cell communication
i. Mechanism to respond and restore
ii. Nervous, Hormonal, Intrinsic Systems
3. Requires Negative Feedback
ii. Conditions include:
1. Salts, H2O, O2, CO2, nutrients, waste elimination, temperature,
pH
a. *Within Range= not completely constant
V. Important Life Substances/ Processes
a. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
i. Principal form of energy used by cells
1. Comes from Nutrients and Food
2. ATP + H2O Hydrolyzed to ADP +Pi +ENERGY
a. Energy used for cellular work
ii. Stored in the animal
b. Cellular Respiration
i. Major pathway to get ATP
ii. Measure of O2 consumption= calculation of Metabolic Rate
iii. Aerobic Respiration (Oxygen)
1. Glucose CO2 + H2O (metabolic= produced by metabolism) +
38 ATP (net)
2. More Efficient and also produces Water= PLUS
3. Negatives:
a. Produces CO2 as waste which costs energy to get rid of
b. Very Slow
iv. Anaerobic Respiration (No Oxygen)
1. Glucose Lactic Acid + 2 ATP (net)
2. Very Fast= when need ATP quickly
3. Negatives:
a. Not very efficient
b. Lactic Acid is toxic= costs energy to get rid of
c. Metabolic Rate (MR)
i. Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
, Exam 1 4
1. Tells full aerobic metabolism of the animal
a. Younger= higher metabolic rate
ii. Measured as O2 consumption units of calories or kilocalories (1000cal)
iii. Sum of all energy-requiring biochemical reactions
1. Basal Metabolic Rate
2. Movement ie: muscle contraction
3. Heat Production
4. Anabolic Pathways ie: building biomass
d. Feedback Systems
i. Systems sense parameter in environment, make decision to make an action
to make the change, makes the change
ii. Components
1. Sensor = measures some aspect of the internal environment
2. Integrator = compares the sensor measurement to a reference value
(set point)
3. Effector = the output of the system that changes the internal
environment
iii. Negative Feedback (usually Homeostasis)
1. Produces opposite result of what happened
2. ** Effector counteracts initial Sensor stimulus
a. Thermostat
i. Temp Higher than set point must Decrease
ii. Temp Lower than set point must Increase
iv. Positive Feedback
1. Continues with same action
2. **Effector increases the initial Sensor stimulus
3. Leads to Rapid Changes
4. Example
a. Temperature increase measured by the sensor results in
effector causing further increase in temperature
e. Size Principle
i. Relationship between Surface Area and Volume
ii. SA/V approx. = 1/r
1. As r increases the relative surface area for exchange decreases
a. Larger the animal the less exchange
2. **Ability of animal to exchange with its environment
Large Animal/ Cell Small Animal
Exchange BAD GOOD
Substances
Retain GOOD BAD
Substances
VI. Physiological Ecology
a. Organisms relationship to its physiochemical environment
