PSYC 140 Modules 1–8 Exam Study Guide
2026/2027 – Complete Exam-Style Questions
with Correct Answers & Detailed Rationales |
Verified & Reliable
Question 1
A psychologist observes that students who report sleeping
fewer than six hours per night tend to earn lower examination
scores. Which conclusion is most scientifically justified from this
finding?
A. Insufficient sleep causes poor academic performance.
B. Poor academic performance causes students to sleep less.
C. Sleep duration and examination performance are
associated, but causation cannot be established from this
observation alone.
D. The relationship proves that sleep duration is the most
important determinant of academic performance.
Rationale: A correlational observation can establish that two
variables are related, but it cannot determine whether one
causes the other. Other variables, such as stress, workload,
health, or study habits, could influence both sleep and
examination performance. An experimental design involving
,manipulation of sleep would be needed to make a stronger
causal inference.
Question 2
A researcher randomly assigns participants to receive either a
mindfulness intervention or a neutral reading activity before
completing a stress task. What is the primary purpose of
random assignment?
A. To ensure that the sample represents the entire population.
B. To reduce systematic preexisting differences between the
experimental groups.
C. To guarantee that participants accurately report their
emotions.
D. To eliminate the need for a control condition.
Rationale: Random assignment distributes participant
characteristics across conditions by chance, helping reduce
systematic group differences before the manipulation occurs. It
does not guarantee identical groups or make a sample
representative of the population. Random sampling addresses
representativeness, whereas random assignment strengthens
causal inference.
Question 3
A researcher operationally defines “test anxiety” as a
participant's score on a validated 20-item anxiety questionnaire
,administered immediately before an examination. What does
this definition illustrate?
A. Replication
B. Random sampling
C. Operationalization
D. Naturalistic observation
Rationale: Operationalization converts an abstract construct
into a measurable procedure or variable. “Test anxiety” is a
psychological construct, while the questionnaire score provides
a specific method for measuring it. Operational definitions
make concepts sufficiently precise for empirical investigation
and replication.
Question 4
Which situation best illustrates the difference between
reliability and validity?
A. A test produces different scores each time but accurately
measures intelligence.
B. A test has a large sample but no control group.
C. A scale consistently produces readings two kilograms too
high; it is reliable but not valid for measuring true weight.
D. A researcher uses both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Rationale: Reliability concerns consistency or stability of
measurement, whereas validity concerns whether a measure
, actually measures what it is intended to measure. A consistently
inaccurate scale demonstrates reliability without adequate
validity. Reliable measurement is generally important for
validity, but consistency alone does not establish accuracy.
Question 5
A study finds that adolescents who spend more time on social
media also report greater loneliness. Which variable could
reasonably serve as a confounding variable?
A. The number of participants in the study
B. The wording of the research hypothesis
C. Preexisting social isolation, if it contributes to both social-
media use and loneliness
D. The statistical significance threshold selected by the
researcher
Rationale: A confounding variable is an additional factor that
may be related to both variables under investigation and
therefore complicate interpretation of their relationship.
Preexisting social isolation could plausibly lead someone to
spend more time online while also contributing independently
to loneliness.
Question 6
2026/2027 – Complete Exam-Style Questions
with Correct Answers & Detailed Rationales |
Verified & Reliable
Question 1
A psychologist observes that students who report sleeping
fewer than six hours per night tend to earn lower examination
scores. Which conclusion is most scientifically justified from this
finding?
A. Insufficient sleep causes poor academic performance.
B. Poor academic performance causes students to sleep less.
C. Sleep duration and examination performance are
associated, but causation cannot be established from this
observation alone.
D. The relationship proves that sleep duration is the most
important determinant of academic performance.
Rationale: A correlational observation can establish that two
variables are related, but it cannot determine whether one
causes the other. Other variables, such as stress, workload,
health, or study habits, could influence both sleep and
examination performance. An experimental design involving
,manipulation of sleep would be needed to make a stronger
causal inference.
Question 2
A researcher randomly assigns participants to receive either a
mindfulness intervention or a neutral reading activity before
completing a stress task. What is the primary purpose of
random assignment?
A. To ensure that the sample represents the entire population.
B. To reduce systematic preexisting differences between the
experimental groups.
C. To guarantee that participants accurately report their
emotions.
D. To eliminate the need for a control condition.
Rationale: Random assignment distributes participant
characteristics across conditions by chance, helping reduce
systematic group differences before the manipulation occurs. It
does not guarantee identical groups or make a sample
representative of the population. Random sampling addresses
representativeness, whereas random assignment strengthens
causal inference.
Question 3
A researcher operationally defines “test anxiety” as a
participant's score on a validated 20-item anxiety questionnaire
,administered immediately before an examination. What does
this definition illustrate?
A. Replication
B. Random sampling
C. Operationalization
D. Naturalistic observation
Rationale: Operationalization converts an abstract construct
into a measurable procedure or variable. “Test anxiety” is a
psychological construct, while the questionnaire score provides
a specific method for measuring it. Operational definitions
make concepts sufficiently precise for empirical investigation
and replication.
Question 4
Which situation best illustrates the difference between
reliability and validity?
A. A test produces different scores each time but accurately
measures intelligence.
B. A test has a large sample but no control group.
C. A scale consistently produces readings two kilograms too
high; it is reliable but not valid for measuring true weight.
D. A researcher uses both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Rationale: Reliability concerns consistency or stability of
measurement, whereas validity concerns whether a measure
, actually measures what it is intended to measure. A consistently
inaccurate scale demonstrates reliability without adequate
validity. Reliable measurement is generally important for
validity, but consistency alone does not establish accuracy.
Question 5
A study finds that adolescents who spend more time on social
media also report greater loneliness. Which variable could
reasonably serve as a confounding variable?
A. The number of participants in the study
B. The wording of the research hypothesis
C. Preexisting social isolation, if it contributes to both social-
media use and loneliness
D. The statistical significance threshold selected by the
researcher
Rationale: A confounding variable is an additional factor that
may be related to both variables under investigation and
therefore complicate interpretation of their relationship.
Preexisting social isolation could plausibly lead someone to
spend more time online while also contributing independently
to loneliness.
Question 6
