Psyc 355 Cognitive Psychology- EXAM
PREP UPDATED ACTUAL Questions and
CORRECT Answers
Define Cognition. Why is the study of cognition important? - CORRECT ANSWER The term
cognition refers to our mental activities. It is used to describe how we receive, store, transform and use
knowledge. The term also refers to our memory, language, problem solving, reasoning and decision
making.
In Psychology, cognition can mean mental activity, and it can also refer to a particular theoretical
approach.
Psychology is interested in cognition because humans mental processes are pivotal to daily life. Almost
everything we do requires use of our ability to think, remember, make decisions and use language.
Cognition influences behaviours.
Further, cognitive psychology influences other areas of psychology, for example, a depressed patient may
provide a very brief example when asked to recall a specific memory, whereas a person who is not
depressed tends to describe an extended memory in more detail. Also, facial recognition in
neuropsychology. Finally, Cognitive Psychology helps us understand our personal mind better and could
help us improve our own performance.
Describe the early history of cognitive psychology, focusing on the contributions of each of the following:
Wilhelm Wundt
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Mary Calkins
William James
Frederick Bartlett - CORRECT ANSWER Wundt: Most people would consider him the "founder of
psychology". He proposed that psychology should be the study of mental processes, or "introspection",
however the techniques used were very subjective/not scientific.
Ebbinghaus: A German psychologist and the first person to study human memory and developed factors
that may influence memory performance. Used nonsense syllables in his research. Ebbinghaus also
reported the classic forgetting curve, in which there is rapid forgetting in the first 24 hours, followed by a
plateau that persists for months and even years.
,Calkins: Also a memory researcher, but from the U.S. She discovered the recency effect through her
work, which refers to the observation that we best recall the final item in a list. SHe also emphasized that
psychology should study how people use their cognition in the real world, not just lab. First Woman
president of the APA.
James: Was not impressed with introspection and preferred to study everyday psychological experiences.
Best known for his textbook called "Principles of Psychology", which emphasized that the human mind is
active and inquiring.
Bartlett: A British psychologist who conducted research on human memory. He used meaningful
materials, such as lengthy stories in his research and discovered that people make errors when recalling
stories. He proposed that memory is an active, constructive process in which we interpret and transform
the info we encounter, and search for meaning while we try to integrate the information so that it is more
consistent with our personal experiences. Bartlett's work was largely ignored in the US because
psychologists were focused on behaviourism.
Define the "information-processing approach" as presented in Matlin. Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin
model of memory, and explain how it is an example of the information-processing approach. - CORRECT
ANSWER The information processing approach argues that a) our mental processes are similar to
the operations of a computer, b) info progresses through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one
step at a time.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that memory involves a series of separate steps, and in each step,
info is transferred from one storage area to another. (9) Ex: External environmental stimuli enters sensory
memory and is stored for 2 seconds or less and most is forgotten. Some of the material in sensory memory
passes to short-term memory (working memory), which holds only the small amount of information
currently and actively using. Momories in short term memory are fragile, but not as fragile as sensory
memory. Only a fraction of info in working memory passes to long-term memory. The Atkinson-Shiffrin
model proposes that info in long-term memory is relatively permanent. The A-S model's influence has not
diminished.
Define "cognitive neuroscience." Briefly describe the following methods used by neuroscientists:
brain lesions
positron emission tomography (PET)
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
,event-related potential (ERP) - CORRECT ANSWER Cognitive neuroscience combines research
techniques of cognitive psychology with various methods for assessing the structure and function of the
brain. Ex: areas of the brain activated during specific tasks, and what kind of cognitive processes we use
during interactions with other people (social cognitive neuroscience).
Brain Lesions: Refers to the destruction of an area of the brain, often by strokes, tumors, blows to the
head and accidents. Studies of legions help to understand the organization of the brain, but hard to
interpret because legions are not limited to only one area.
PET: The brain uses chemicals (oxygen) to support neural activity, as the brain does not store oxygen.
Blood flow increases in the activated brain site in order to carry oxygen to the site. PET measures blood
flow by injecting a radioactive chemical just before a cognitive task. Cameras produce images of the
accumulated chemical in specific brain areas. Takes several seconds to produce data, so not very precise.
fMRI: Do not use radioactive substances. Uses magnetic field to produce changes in the oxygen atoms,
scanning of these atoms takes place during a cognitive task. Preferred over PET because more precise
identification of exact time of sequence of cognitive tasks. fMRI can also subtle differences in how the
brain processes language.
ERP: Event-Related Potential Technique- records the brief fluctuations in the brain's electrical activity in
response to a stimulus, such as an auditory one. Electrodes are placed on the scalp, which measure the
electrical activity generated by a group pf neurons located directly beneath the scalp. Can measure the
activity of a group of neurons, not single ones.
Identify and describe the five themes of the textbook. - CORRECT ANSWER 1) The cognitive
processes are active, rather than passive: Behaviourists believe that humans are passive, simply waiting
for stimuli from the environment. In contrast, cognitive approaches propose that people actively seek out
information. Also, memory is a lively process involving actively synthesizing and transforming
information.
2) The cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate: Language development, material stored
in memory, learning..all astonishing.
3) The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information: We understand
sentences better when worded in the affirmative; ie; Mary is honest, instead of , Mary is not dishonest. We
, also tend to perform better on pleasant tasks, rather than unpleasant ones. Our cognitive processes are
designed to handle what is, rather than what is not.
4) The cognitive processes are interrelated with one another: they do not operate in isolation: All higher
mental processes require integration of our more basic cognitive processes. Problem solving, logical
reasoning, decision making are all complex.
5) Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom up and top-down processing: Bottom up emphasizes the
importance of stimuli registered by sensory receptors and uses only low-level sensory analysis of the
stimuli. Top-Down refers to how our concepts, expectations and memory all influence our cognitive
processes.
Describe the "connectionist approach," including the origins of the approach, its basic characteristics, and
reactions to the approach. What are some other names for this approach? - CORRECT
ANSWER The information processing approach cannot explain how we manage to perform most
of our most complex tasks, therefore, the connectionist approach argues that cognitive processes can be
understood in terms of networks that link together neuron-like units; in addition, many operations can
proceed simultaneously, rather than one step at a time. For example, there may not be a single pinpoint
area in the brain that is responsible for me remembering someone's name, rather, this information is
distributed throughout the neural networks in the brain. Many psychologists welcomed the connectionist
approach and regarded it as groundbreaking.
Other names: parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach and neural-network approach.
Origins: 1986, James McClelland and David Rumelhart published a book titled Parallel Distributed
Model.
Serial Processing is one step at a time. Parallel processing, numerous signals handled at the same time.
Define "perception," and provide an original example of perception. Define "object recognition," "distal
stimulus," and "proximal stimulus." What is sensory memory and the primary visual cortex? - CORRECT
ANSWER Perception: Using previously acquired knowledge to gather and interpret the stimuli
registered by the senses. An example is using our eyes to see an outdoor scene , and knowledge
previously acquired to organize that stimuli into recognizing the scene as a wedding.
PREP UPDATED ACTUAL Questions and
CORRECT Answers
Define Cognition. Why is the study of cognition important? - CORRECT ANSWER The term
cognition refers to our mental activities. It is used to describe how we receive, store, transform and use
knowledge. The term also refers to our memory, language, problem solving, reasoning and decision
making.
In Psychology, cognition can mean mental activity, and it can also refer to a particular theoretical
approach.
Psychology is interested in cognition because humans mental processes are pivotal to daily life. Almost
everything we do requires use of our ability to think, remember, make decisions and use language.
Cognition influences behaviours.
Further, cognitive psychology influences other areas of psychology, for example, a depressed patient may
provide a very brief example when asked to recall a specific memory, whereas a person who is not
depressed tends to describe an extended memory in more detail. Also, facial recognition in
neuropsychology. Finally, Cognitive Psychology helps us understand our personal mind better and could
help us improve our own performance.
Describe the early history of cognitive psychology, focusing on the contributions of each of the following:
Wilhelm Wundt
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Mary Calkins
William James
Frederick Bartlett - CORRECT ANSWER Wundt: Most people would consider him the "founder of
psychology". He proposed that psychology should be the study of mental processes, or "introspection",
however the techniques used were very subjective/not scientific.
Ebbinghaus: A German psychologist and the first person to study human memory and developed factors
that may influence memory performance. Used nonsense syllables in his research. Ebbinghaus also
reported the classic forgetting curve, in which there is rapid forgetting in the first 24 hours, followed by a
plateau that persists for months and even years.
,Calkins: Also a memory researcher, but from the U.S. She discovered the recency effect through her
work, which refers to the observation that we best recall the final item in a list. SHe also emphasized that
psychology should study how people use their cognition in the real world, not just lab. First Woman
president of the APA.
James: Was not impressed with introspection and preferred to study everyday psychological experiences.
Best known for his textbook called "Principles of Psychology", which emphasized that the human mind is
active and inquiring.
Bartlett: A British psychologist who conducted research on human memory. He used meaningful
materials, such as lengthy stories in his research and discovered that people make errors when recalling
stories. He proposed that memory is an active, constructive process in which we interpret and transform
the info we encounter, and search for meaning while we try to integrate the information so that it is more
consistent with our personal experiences. Bartlett's work was largely ignored in the US because
psychologists were focused on behaviourism.
Define the "information-processing approach" as presented in Matlin. Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin
model of memory, and explain how it is an example of the information-processing approach. - CORRECT
ANSWER The information processing approach argues that a) our mental processes are similar to
the operations of a computer, b) info progresses through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one
step at a time.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that memory involves a series of separate steps, and in each step,
info is transferred from one storage area to another. (9) Ex: External environmental stimuli enters sensory
memory and is stored for 2 seconds or less and most is forgotten. Some of the material in sensory memory
passes to short-term memory (working memory), which holds only the small amount of information
currently and actively using. Momories in short term memory are fragile, but not as fragile as sensory
memory. Only a fraction of info in working memory passes to long-term memory. The Atkinson-Shiffrin
model proposes that info in long-term memory is relatively permanent. The A-S model's influence has not
diminished.
Define "cognitive neuroscience." Briefly describe the following methods used by neuroscientists:
brain lesions
positron emission tomography (PET)
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
,event-related potential (ERP) - CORRECT ANSWER Cognitive neuroscience combines research
techniques of cognitive psychology with various methods for assessing the structure and function of the
brain. Ex: areas of the brain activated during specific tasks, and what kind of cognitive processes we use
during interactions with other people (social cognitive neuroscience).
Brain Lesions: Refers to the destruction of an area of the brain, often by strokes, tumors, blows to the
head and accidents. Studies of legions help to understand the organization of the brain, but hard to
interpret because legions are not limited to only one area.
PET: The brain uses chemicals (oxygen) to support neural activity, as the brain does not store oxygen.
Blood flow increases in the activated brain site in order to carry oxygen to the site. PET measures blood
flow by injecting a radioactive chemical just before a cognitive task. Cameras produce images of the
accumulated chemical in specific brain areas. Takes several seconds to produce data, so not very precise.
fMRI: Do not use radioactive substances. Uses magnetic field to produce changes in the oxygen atoms,
scanning of these atoms takes place during a cognitive task. Preferred over PET because more precise
identification of exact time of sequence of cognitive tasks. fMRI can also subtle differences in how the
brain processes language.
ERP: Event-Related Potential Technique- records the brief fluctuations in the brain's electrical activity in
response to a stimulus, such as an auditory one. Electrodes are placed on the scalp, which measure the
electrical activity generated by a group pf neurons located directly beneath the scalp. Can measure the
activity of a group of neurons, not single ones.
Identify and describe the five themes of the textbook. - CORRECT ANSWER 1) The cognitive
processes are active, rather than passive: Behaviourists believe that humans are passive, simply waiting
for stimuli from the environment. In contrast, cognitive approaches propose that people actively seek out
information. Also, memory is a lively process involving actively synthesizing and transforming
information.
2) The cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate: Language development, material stored
in memory, learning..all astonishing.
3) The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information: We understand
sentences better when worded in the affirmative; ie; Mary is honest, instead of , Mary is not dishonest. We
, also tend to perform better on pleasant tasks, rather than unpleasant ones. Our cognitive processes are
designed to handle what is, rather than what is not.
4) The cognitive processes are interrelated with one another: they do not operate in isolation: All higher
mental processes require integration of our more basic cognitive processes. Problem solving, logical
reasoning, decision making are all complex.
5) Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom up and top-down processing: Bottom up emphasizes the
importance of stimuli registered by sensory receptors and uses only low-level sensory analysis of the
stimuli. Top-Down refers to how our concepts, expectations and memory all influence our cognitive
processes.
Describe the "connectionist approach," including the origins of the approach, its basic characteristics, and
reactions to the approach. What are some other names for this approach? - CORRECT
ANSWER The information processing approach cannot explain how we manage to perform most
of our most complex tasks, therefore, the connectionist approach argues that cognitive processes can be
understood in terms of networks that link together neuron-like units; in addition, many operations can
proceed simultaneously, rather than one step at a time. For example, there may not be a single pinpoint
area in the brain that is responsible for me remembering someone's name, rather, this information is
distributed throughout the neural networks in the brain. Many psychologists welcomed the connectionist
approach and regarded it as groundbreaking.
Other names: parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach and neural-network approach.
Origins: 1986, James McClelland and David Rumelhart published a book titled Parallel Distributed
Model.
Serial Processing is one step at a time. Parallel processing, numerous signals handled at the same time.
Define "perception," and provide an original example of perception. Define "object recognition," "distal
stimulus," and "proximal stimulus." What is sensory memory and the primary visual cortex? - CORRECT
ANSWER Perception: Using previously acquired knowledge to gather and interpret the stimuli
registered by the senses. An example is using our eyes to see an outdoor scene , and knowledge
previously acquired to organize that stimuli into recognizing the scene as a wedding.
