CANC 380 MODULE 2 (2026) EXAM QUESTIONS ANSWERED CORRECTLY LATEST UPDATE 2026
What are the three main factors considered in the stages of cancer? - Answers Size, location, and
spread of the tumor.
What does grading in cancer refer to? - Answers The physical appearance of malignant cells.
What does the 'T' in the TNM staging system stand for? - Answers Tumor - it indicates the size and
location of the primary tumor.
What does the 'N' in the TNM staging system represent? - Answers Node - it assesses whether the
tumor has spread to lymph nodes and if so, where and how many.
What does the 'M' in the TNM staging system indicate? - Answers Metastasis - it refers to the spread
of cancer to other body parts.
What does TNM stand for in cancer staging? - Answers Tumor, Node, Metastasis.
What is Stage 0 in cancer staging? - Answers 'In situ': cancer is in the position where it started and is
highly curable.
What characterizes Stage 1 cancer? - Answers Localized cancer that begins to invade neighboring
tissues but remains a single lump.
What happens in Stage 2 and 3 cancer? - Answers Cancer divides and grows into surrounding tissues
and may have spread to lymph nodes.
What defines Stage 4 cancer? - Answers Cancer has spread to other organs or body parts (metastatic).
What is the difference between non-muscle invasive and muscle-invasive bladder cancer? - Answers
Non-muscle invasive (NMIBC) does not invade the bladder wall, while muscle-invasive (MIBC) extends
into the muscular wall.
What does TIS indicate in bladder cancer staging? - Answers Flat carcinoma in situ, only found near or
on the bladder surface.
What is the Gleason score used for? - Answers To grade prostate cancer based on histological
patterns of the tumor.
What is the Two-Hit Hypothesis in cancer? - Answers Both alleles of a tumor suppressor gene must be
mutated for cancer to develop.
What is neoplasia? - Answers Unregulated, proliferative growth due to genetic changes; hallmark of
cancer.
What is the difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia? - Answers Hypertrophy is an increase in
cell size, while hyperplasia is an increase in cell number.
What is dedifferentiation in cancer cells? - Answers The process where cancer cells lose their
specialization.
What is epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)? - Answers A dedifferentiation process where
epithelial cells acquire mesenchymal traits, aiding in invasion and metastasis.
What is the role of tumor suppressor genes? - Answers To slow cell division, repair DNA, and trigger
apoptosis.
What is the significance of the TP53 gene in cancer? - Answers It is the most frequently altered gene
in cancer, encoding the p53 protein, which regulates DNA repair and apoptosis.
What are cancer stem cells (CSCs)? - Answers Cells with self-renewal capacity that can initiate and
sustain tumor growth.
What is genomic instability? - Answers Increased mutation rate within tumor cells, leading to cancer
progression.
What is the role of selective pressures in the tumor microenvironment? - Answers They select for
variants with increased fitness, influencing tumor evolution.
What are the hallmarks of cancer? - Answers Traits selected by the tumor environment and functional
outcomes of driver mutations.
What is the difference between a clone and a sub-clone in cancer? - Answers A clone is a group of
cells derived from the same parent cell, while a sub-clone is a progeny of a mutant cell arising from a
clone.
What is the significance of mutations in stem cells for cancer? - Answers Mutations must occur in
stem cells to provide a selective advantage and propagate cancer.
What are the fitness tests a mutation must pass to provide a selective advantage in cancer? - Answers
1) Alter protein function, 2) Alter cellular phenotype for advantage, 3) Stable propagation of the
advantage.
What are the three main factors considered in the stages of cancer? - Answers Size, location, and
spread of the tumor.
What does grading in cancer refer to? - Answers The physical appearance of malignant cells.
What does the 'T' in the TNM staging system stand for? - Answers Tumor - it indicates the size and
location of the primary tumor.
What does the 'N' in the TNM staging system represent? - Answers Node - it assesses whether the
tumor has spread to lymph nodes and if so, where and how many.
What does the 'M' in the TNM staging system indicate? - Answers Metastasis - it refers to the spread
of cancer to other body parts.
What does TNM stand for in cancer staging? - Answers Tumor, Node, Metastasis.
What is Stage 0 in cancer staging? - Answers 'In situ': cancer is in the position where it started and is
highly curable.
What characterizes Stage 1 cancer? - Answers Localized cancer that begins to invade neighboring
tissues but remains a single lump.
What happens in Stage 2 and 3 cancer? - Answers Cancer divides and grows into surrounding tissues
and may have spread to lymph nodes.
What defines Stage 4 cancer? - Answers Cancer has spread to other organs or body parts (metastatic).
What is the difference between non-muscle invasive and muscle-invasive bladder cancer? - Answers
Non-muscle invasive (NMIBC) does not invade the bladder wall, while muscle-invasive (MIBC) extends
into the muscular wall.
What does TIS indicate in bladder cancer staging? - Answers Flat carcinoma in situ, only found near or
on the bladder surface.
What is the Gleason score used for? - Answers To grade prostate cancer based on histological
patterns of the tumor.
What is the Two-Hit Hypothesis in cancer? - Answers Both alleles of a tumor suppressor gene must be
mutated for cancer to develop.
What is neoplasia? - Answers Unregulated, proliferative growth due to genetic changes; hallmark of
cancer.
What is the difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia? - Answers Hypertrophy is an increase in
cell size, while hyperplasia is an increase in cell number.
What is dedifferentiation in cancer cells? - Answers The process where cancer cells lose their
specialization.
What is epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)? - Answers A dedifferentiation process where
epithelial cells acquire mesenchymal traits, aiding in invasion and metastasis.
What is the role of tumor suppressor genes? - Answers To slow cell division, repair DNA, and trigger
apoptosis.
What is the significance of the TP53 gene in cancer? - Answers It is the most frequently altered gene
in cancer, encoding the p53 protein, which regulates DNA repair and apoptosis.
What are cancer stem cells (CSCs)? - Answers Cells with self-renewal capacity that can initiate and
sustain tumor growth.
What is genomic instability? - Answers Increased mutation rate within tumor cells, leading to cancer
progression.
What is the role of selective pressures in the tumor microenvironment? - Answers They select for
variants with increased fitness, influencing tumor evolution.
What are the hallmarks of cancer? - Answers Traits selected by the tumor environment and functional
outcomes of driver mutations.
What is the difference between a clone and a sub-clone in cancer? - Answers A clone is a group of
cells derived from the same parent cell, while a sub-clone is a progeny of a mutant cell arising from a
clone.
What is the significance of mutations in stem cells for cancer? - Answers Mutations must occur in
stem cells to provide a selective advantage and propagate cancer.
What are the fitness tests a mutation must pass to provide a selective advantage in cancer? - Answers
1) Alter protein function, 2) Alter cellular phenotype for advantage, 3) Stable propagation of the
advantage.
