CANC 380 FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS WITH CORRECT ANSWERS LATEST UPDATE 2026
Cancer - Answers A collection of diseases with uncontrolled cell growth.
Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) - Answers A metric combining years lost to premature death and
disability.
Darwinian Evolution - Answers Theory explaining variation, heritability, and natural selection.
Innate Immune System - Answers First line of defense against cancer cells.
Adaptive Immune System - Answers Tailored response to specific cancer antigens.
Antigen-Presenting Cells - Answers Cells that display antigens to activate T-cells.
MHC Class I Receptors - Answers Present intracellular antigens to CD8+ T-cells.
MHC Class II Receptors - Answers Present extracellular antigens to CD4+ T-cells.
Tumour Antigens - Answers Substances produced by cancer cells recognized by the immune system.
War on Cancer - Answers 1971 initiative aimed at eradicating cancer.
Radiation Therapy - Answers Treatment using high-energy particles to kill cancer cells.
Chemotherapy - Answers Use of drugs to kill or slow cancer cell growth.
Hormonal Therapy - Answers Treatment targeting hormone-sensitive cancers.
Targeted Drugs - Answers Medications designed to specifically attack cancer cells.
Immunotherapy - Answers Treatment that boosts the immune response against cancer.
Evolutionary Biology of Cancer - Answers Application of evolutionary principles to cancer
development.
Natural Selection in Cancer - Answers Survival of cancer cells with advantageous mutations.
Research Funding - Answers Financial resources allocated for cancer research initiatives.
Economic Impact of Cancer - Answers Significant costs associated with treatment and loss of
productivity.
Mortality Contribution - Answers Cancer as a leading cause of death globally.
Media Representation of Cancer - Answers Critical evaluation of how cancer research is reported.
Historical Progression of Cancer Treatments - Answers Advancements from early treatments to
modern therapies.
Complexity of Cancer - Answers Diverse biological processes complicate finding a universal cure.
Clone - Answers Group of identical cells from one parent cell.
Sub-clone - Answers Progeny of a mutant cell within a clone.
Selective pressures - Answers Environmental factors affecting cancer cell survival.
Divergent evolution - Answers Leads to heterogeneous subclones in tumours.
Convergent evolution - Answers Unrelated tumours develop similar mutations.
Parallel evolution - Answers Different clones develop similar growth mechanisms.
Innate immune system - Answers Immediate response to pathogens via barriers.
Adaptive immune system - Answers Delayed response generating antibodies against pathogens.
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) - Answers Cells that present antigens to initiate immune response.
MHC Class I receptors - Answers Present cytosolic proteins on all nucleated cells.
MHC Class II receptors - Answers Present ingested proteins on antigen-presenting cells.
Tumour antigens - Answers Abnormal proteins recognized by the immune system.
Natural killer cells - Answers Directly kill tumour cells without prior sensitization.
Macrophages - Answers Become tumouricidal, destroying cancer cells.
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) - Answers Target and destroy tumour cells via antigen recognition.
Antibodies - Answers Activate pathways leading to tumour cell destruction.
Immune surveillance - Answers Immune system destroys abnormal cells to prevent cancer.
Tumour promotion - Answers Immune involvement can paradoxically aid cancer growth.
Immunoediting - Answers Immune system eliminates and selects for cancer cells.
TNM system - Answers Describes cancer stage based on Tumour, Node, Metastasis.
T component - Answers Describes size and location of primary tumour.
N component - Answers Describes spread to regional lymph nodes.
M component - Answers Describes spread to other body parts.
Stage 0 - Answers Cancer in situ, original position only.
TIS - Answers Carcinoma in situ, flat on bladder surface.
Ta - Answers Papillary tumour confined to urothelium only.
T1 - Answers Tumour extends into lamina propria, not muscle.
T2a - Answers Tumour invades first layers of muscularis propria.
, T2b - Answers Tumour affects deeper layers of muscularis propria.
T3 - Answers Tumour grows into perivesical fat surrounding bladder.
T4 - Answers Tumour extends beyond perivesical fat into organs.
Tumour Grading - Answers Classifies cancer by differentiation and proliferation levels.
Gleason Score - Answers Sum of two most common histological grades.
Gleason Grade 3 - Answers More variation in glandular size observed.
Gleason Grade 4 - Answers Merging of glands into cribiform structures.
Gleason Grade 5 - Answers Poorly differentiated, cells form sheets, not glands.
Cell Differentiation - Answers Process of cells becoming specialized in function.
Dedifferentiation - Answers Cells revert to less specialized, cancerous state.
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) - Answers Dedifferentiation allowing cells to gain
mesenchymal traits.
Invasion - Answers Cancer cells penetrate surrounding tissues and structures.
Metastasis - Answers Spread of cancer cells to distant body sites.
Intravasation - Answers Cancer cells enter blood vessels from tissues.
Extravasation - Answers Cancer cells exit circulation to form metastases.
Driver Mutations - Answers Genetic changes providing growth advantage to cells.
Tumour Suppressor Genes - Answers Inhibit cancer development, both alleles must be inactivated.
Oncogenes - Answers Promote cell growth when activated, one allele altered.
Two-Hit Hypothesis - Answers Both alleles of tumour suppressor genes must be affected.
Cellular Transformation - Answers Healthy cells become cancerous through various alterations.
Random Genetic Mutations - Answers Errors in DNA replication causing cancer-related mutations.
Inherited Genetic Mutations - Answers Genetic mutations passed from parents increasing cancer risk.
Li Fraumeni Syndrome - Answers Cancer predisposition syndrome linked to TP53 mutations.
Heritable Epigenetic Alterations - Answers Non-DNA sequence changes affecting gene expression
heritably.
Genotoxic Stress - Answers DNA damage from agents like radiation inducing mutations.
Two-Hit Hypothesis - Answers Cancer requires two mutations for cellular transformation.
Driver Mutations - Answers Mutations providing selective advantages for cancer development.
Clonal Evolution - Answers Single mutated cell expands, creating genetically diverse clones.
Tumour Heterogeneity - Answers Genetic and phenotypic diversity within and between tumours.
Selective Sweep - Answers Advantageous mutations outcompete others in clonal populations.
Cancer Progression - Answers Development of cancer involving growth and invasion.
TNM Staging System - Answers System describing tumour size, lymph node involvement, metastasis.
Tumourigenesis - Answers Process of normal cells transforming into cancer cells.
Apoptosis - Answers Programmed cell death preventing damaged cell proliferation.
Senescence - Answers Cellular aging process limiting cell division.
Proto-oncogenes - Answers Normal genes that can become oncogenes through mutations.
Tumour Suppressor Genes - Answers Genes that prevent uncontrolled cell growth.
Clonal Expansion - Answers Proliferation of mutated cells forming a clone.
Genetic Instability - Answers Increased mutation rates leading to diverse cancer cells.
Fitness Test for Mutations - Answers Assessment of mutations for selective advantages.
Treatment Resistance - Answers Tumour sub-clones evade therapies targeting dominant mutations.
Diagnostic Strategies - Answers Methods developed to identify and treat diverse tumours.
Cancer Stages - Answers Stages 0-4 indicate cancer progression severity.
Stage 0 - Answers Cancer confined to its original position.
Stage 4 - Answers Cancer has metastasized to distant body parts.
Tumour Grading - Answers Classifies cancer based on differentiation and proliferation.
Cell Differentiation - Answers Process of cells becoming more specialized.
Dedifferentiation - Answers Cells revert to a less specialized state.
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) - Answers Epithelial cells acquire mesenchymal properties
during cancer.
Gleason Score - Answers Grading system for prostate cancer differentiation levels.
Neoplasia - Answers Unregulated cell proliferation due to genetic changes.
Hypertrophy - Answers Increase in cell size without increasing cell number.
Hyperplasia - Answers Increase in cell number, can be normal or pathological.
Metaplasia - Answers Reversible replacement of one mature cell type with another.
Cancer - Answers A collection of diseases with uncontrolled cell growth.
Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) - Answers A metric combining years lost to premature death and
disability.
Darwinian Evolution - Answers Theory explaining variation, heritability, and natural selection.
Innate Immune System - Answers First line of defense against cancer cells.
Adaptive Immune System - Answers Tailored response to specific cancer antigens.
Antigen-Presenting Cells - Answers Cells that display antigens to activate T-cells.
MHC Class I Receptors - Answers Present intracellular antigens to CD8+ T-cells.
MHC Class II Receptors - Answers Present extracellular antigens to CD4+ T-cells.
Tumour Antigens - Answers Substances produced by cancer cells recognized by the immune system.
War on Cancer - Answers 1971 initiative aimed at eradicating cancer.
Radiation Therapy - Answers Treatment using high-energy particles to kill cancer cells.
Chemotherapy - Answers Use of drugs to kill or slow cancer cell growth.
Hormonal Therapy - Answers Treatment targeting hormone-sensitive cancers.
Targeted Drugs - Answers Medications designed to specifically attack cancer cells.
Immunotherapy - Answers Treatment that boosts the immune response against cancer.
Evolutionary Biology of Cancer - Answers Application of evolutionary principles to cancer
development.
Natural Selection in Cancer - Answers Survival of cancer cells with advantageous mutations.
Research Funding - Answers Financial resources allocated for cancer research initiatives.
Economic Impact of Cancer - Answers Significant costs associated with treatment and loss of
productivity.
Mortality Contribution - Answers Cancer as a leading cause of death globally.
Media Representation of Cancer - Answers Critical evaluation of how cancer research is reported.
Historical Progression of Cancer Treatments - Answers Advancements from early treatments to
modern therapies.
Complexity of Cancer - Answers Diverse biological processes complicate finding a universal cure.
Clone - Answers Group of identical cells from one parent cell.
Sub-clone - Answers Progeny of a mutant cell within a clone.
Selective pressures - Answers Environmental factors affecting cancer cell survival.
Divergent evolution - Answers Leads to heterogeneous subclones in tumours.
Convergent evolution - Answers Unrelated tumours develop similar mutations.
Parallel evolution - Answers Different clones develop similar growth mechanisms.
Innate immune system - Answers Immediate response to pathogens via barriers.
Adaptive immune system - Answers Delayed response generating antibodies against pathogens.
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) - Answers Cells that present antigens to initiate immune response.
MHC Class I receptors - Answers Present cytosolic proteins on all nucleated cells.
MHC Class II receptors - Answers Present ingested proteins on antigen-presenting cells.
Tumour antigens - Answers Abnormal proteins recognized by the immune system.
Natural killer cells - Answers Directly kill tumour cells without prior sensitization.
Macrophages - Answers Become tumouricidal, destroying cancer cells.
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) - Answers Target and destroy tumour cells via antigen recognition.
Antibodies - Answers Activate pathways leading to tumour cell destruction.
Immune surveillance - Answers Immune system destroys abnormal cells to prevent cancer.
Tumour promotion - Answers Immune involvement can paradoxically aid cancer growth.
Immunoediting - Answers Immune system eliminates and selects for cancer cells.
TNM system - Answers Describes cancer stage based on Tumour, Node, Metastasis.
T component - Answers Describes size and location of primary tumour.
N component - Answers Describes spread to regional lymph nodes.
M component - Answers Describes spread to other body parts.
Stage 0 - Answers Cancer in situ, original position only.
TIS - Answers Carcinoma in situ, flat on bladder surface.
Ta - Answers Papillary tumour confined to urothelium only.
T1 - Answers Tumour extends into lamina propria, not muscle.
T2a - Answers Tumour invades first layers of muscularis propria.
, T2b - Answers Tumour affects deeper layers of muscularis propria.
T3 - Answers Tumour grows into perivesical fat surrounding bladder.
T4 - Answers Tumour extends beyond perivesical fat into organs.
Tumour Grading - Answers Classifies cancer by differentiation and proliferation levels.
Gleason Score - Answers Sum of two most common histological grades.
Gleason Grade 3 - Answers More variation in glandular size observed.
Gleason Grade 4 - Answers Merging of glands into cribiform structures.
Gleason Grade 5 - Answers Poorly differentiated, cells form sheets, not glands.
Cell Differentiation - Answers Process of cells becoming specialized in function.
Dedifferentiation - Answers Cells revert to less specialized, cancerous state.
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) - Answers Dedifferentiation allowing cells to gain
mesenchymal traits.
Invasion - Answers Cancer cells penetrate surrounding tissues and structures.
Metastasis - Answers Spread of cancer cells to distant body sites.
Intravasation - Answers Cancer cells enter blood vessels from tissues.
Extravasation - Answers Cancer cells exit circulation to form metastases.
Driver Mutations - Answers Genetic changes providing growth advantage to cells.
Tumour Suppressor Genes - Answers Inhibit cancer development, both alleles must be inactivated.
Oncogenes - Answers Promote cell growth when activated, one allele altered.
Two-Hit Hypothesis - Answers Both alleles of tumour suppressor genes must be affected.
Cellular Transformation - Answers Healthy cells become cancerous through various alterations.
Random Genetic Mutations - Answers Errors in DNA replication causing cancer-related mutations.
Inherited Genetic Mutations - Answers Genetic mutations passed from parents increasing cancer risk.
Li Fraumeni Syndrome - Answers Cancer predisposition syndrome linked to TP53 mutations.
Heritable Epigenetic Alterations - Answers Non-DNA sequence changes affecting gene expression
heritably.
Genotoxic Stress - Answers DNA damage from agents like radiation inducing mutations.
Two-Hit Hypothesis - Answers Cancer requires two mutations for cellular transformation.
Driver Mutations - Answers Mutations providing selective advantages for cancer development.
Clonal Evolution - Answers Single mutated cell expands, creating genetically diverse clones.
Tumour Heterogeneity - Answers Genetic and phenotypic diversity within and between tumours.
Selective Sweep - Answers Advantageous mutations outcompete others in clonal populations.
Cancer Progression - Answers Development of cancer involving growth and invasion.
TNM Staging System - Answers System describing tumour size, lymph node involvement, metastasis.
Tumourigenesis - Answers Process of normal cells transforming into cancer cells.
Apoptosis - Answers Programmed cell death preventing damaged cell proliferation.
Senescence - Answers Cellular aging process limiting cell division.
Proto-oncogenes - Answers Normal genes that can become oncogenes through mutations.
Tumour Suppressor Genes - Answers Genes that prevent uncontrolled cell growth.
Clonal Expansion - Answers Proliferation of mutated cells forming a clone.
Genetic Instability - Answers Increased mutation rates leading to diverse cancer cells.
Fitness Test for Mutations - Answers Assessment of mutations for selective advantages.
Treatment Resistance - Answers Tumour sub-clones evade therapies targeting dominant mutations.
Diagnostic Strategies - Answers Methods developed to identify and treat diverse tumours.
Cancer Stages - Answers Stages 0-4 indicate cancer progression severity.
Stage 0 - Answers Cancer confined to its original position.
Stage 4 - Answers Cancer has metastasized to distant body parts.
Tumour Grading - Answers Classifies cancer based on differentiation and proliferation.
Cell Differentiation - Answers Process of cells becoming more specialized.
Dedifferentiation - Answers Cells revert to a less specialized state.
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) - Answers Epithelial cells acquire mesenchymal properties
during cancer.
Gleason Score - Answers Grading system for prostate cancer differentiation levels.
Neoplasia - Answers Unregulated cell proliferation due to genetic changes.
Hypertrophy - Answers Increase in cell size without increasing cell number.
Hyperplasia - Answers Increase in cell number, can be normal or pathological.
Metaplasia - Answers Reversible replacement of one mature cell type with another.
