Advanced Human Embryology, Development &
Genetics Master Review: Fertilization,
Capacitation, Amphimixis, Cleavage, Blastocyst &
Implantation, Gastrulation & Germ Layer
Differentiation (Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm),
Placentation & Extraembryonic Membranes,
Trimester Development, Organogenesis, Endocrine
Placenta (hCG, hPL, Progesterone), Parturition &
Labor Stages, Multiple Births, Postnatal Growth &
Puberty, Senescence & Geriatrics, Mendelian &
Polygenic Inheritance, Genetic Recombination,
Mutation, Sex-Linked Traits, Chromosomal
Abnormalities, and Human Genome Principles
Exam Questions Verified and Provided with A+
Graded Rationales Latest Updated 2026
Organs of the Urinary System
- Kidneys: produce urinre
- Ureter: transport urine towards the urinary bladder
- Urinary bladder: temporality stores urine prior to urination
- Urethra: conducts urine to exterior, in males, it also transports semen
Urinary System Functions
1. Excretion: removal of organic wastes from body fluids
2. Elimination: discharge of waste products
3. Homeostatic regulation: blood plasma volume & solute concentration
- Kidneys: organs that produce urine
,- Urinart tract: organs that eliminate urine
--> Ureters (paired tubes)
--> Urinary bladder (muscular sac)
--> Urethra (exit tube)
- Urination or micturition: prices of eliminated urine
--> Contraction of muscular urinary bladder forces urine through urethra, & out of body
Homeostatic Functions
- Regulates blood volume & blood pressure
--> By adjusting volume of water lost in urine
--> Releasing erythropoietin & renin
- Regulates plasma ion concentrations
--> Sodium, potassium, & chloride ions ( by controlling quantities lost in urine)
--> Calcium ion levels (through synthesis of calcitrol)
- Helps stabilize blood pH
--> By controlling loss of hydrogen ions & bicarbonate ions in urine
- Conserves valuable nutrients
--> By preventing excretion while excepting organic waste products
- Assists liver in detoxifying poisons
The Kidneys
- Located on either side of vertebral column
--> Left kidney lies superior to right kidney
--> Superior surface capped by adrenal gland
--> Position is maintains by: overlying peritoneum, contact with adjacent visceral organs, &
supporting connective tissues
Three Layers of Tissue (Kidneys)
1. Fibrous capsule
- A layer of collagen fibers
- Covers outer surface of entire organ
,2. Perinephric fat
- A thick layer of adipose tissue
- Surrounds renal capsul
3. Renal fascia
- A dense, fibrous outer layer
- Anchors kidney to surrounding structures
Hilum
- Point of entry for real artery & renal nerves
- Point of exit for renal vein & ureter
Renal Sinus
- Internal cavity within kidney
- Lined by fibrous renal capsule
--> Bound to outer surface of structures in renal sinus
--> Stabilizes positions of ureter, renal blood vessels, & nerves
Renal Cortex
- Superficial portion of kidney in content with renal capsule
- Reddish brown & granular
Renal Pyramids
- 6 to 18 conical or triangular structures in renal medulla
--> Base abuts cortex
--> Tip (renal papilla) projects into renal sinus
Renal Columns
- Bands of cortical tissue separates adjacent renal pyramids
- Extend into medulla
- Have distinct granular texture
Kidney Lobe
, Consists of:
- Renal pyramid
- Overlying area of renal cortex
- Adjacent tissues of renal columns
- Produces urine
Renal Papilla
Ducts discharge urine into minor calyx, a cup-shaped drain
Major Calyx
Formed by four or five minor calyces
Renal Pelvis
- Large, funnel-shaped chamber
- Consists of two or three major calyces
- Fills most of renal sinus
- Connected to ureter, which drains kidney
Nephrons
Microscopic, tubular structures in cortex of each renal lobe
- Where urine production beings
- Consists of renal tubular & renal corpuscle
- Spans renal medulla & renal cortex
- Renal tubule
--> Long tubular passageway
--> Begins at renal corpuscle
- Renal corpuscle
--> Spherical structure consisting of: glomerular capsule (Bowman's capsule), cup-shaped
chamber, & capillary network (glomerulus)
Genetics Master Review: Fertilization,
Capacitation, Amphimixis, Cleavage, Blastocyst &
Implantation, Gastrulation & Germ Layer
Differentiation (Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm),
Placentation & Extraembryonic Membranes,
Trimester Development, Organogenesis, Endocrine
Placenta (hCG, hPL, Progesterone), Parturition &
Labor Stages, Multiple Births, Postnatal Growth &
Puberty, Senescence & Geriatrics, Mendelian &
Polygenic Inheritance, Genetic Recombination,
Mutation, Sex-Linked Traits, Chromosomal
Abnormalities, and Human Genome Principles
Exam Questions Verified and Provided with A+
Graded Rationales Latest Updated 2026
Organs of the Urinary System
- Kidneys: produce urinre
- Ureter: transport urine towards the urinary bladder
- Urinary bladder: temporality stores urine prior to urination
- Urethra: conducts urine to exterior, in males, it also transports semen
Urinary System Functions
1. Excretion: removal of organic wastes from body fluids
2. Elimination: discharge of waste products
3. Homeostatic regulation: blood plasma volume & solute concentration
- Kidneys: organs that produce urine
,- Urinart tract: organs that eliminate urine
--> Ureters (paired tubes)
--> Urinary bladder (muscular sac)
--> Urethra (exit tube)
- Urination or micturition: prices of eliminated urine
--> Contraction of muscular urinary bladder forces urine through urethra, & out of body
Homeostatic Functions
- Regulates blood volume & blood pressure
--> By adjusting volume of water lost in urine
--> Releasing erythropoietin & renin
- Regulates plasma ion concentrations
--> Sodium, potassium, & chloride ions ( by controlling quantities lost in urine)
--> Calcium ion levels (through synthesis of calcitrol)
- Helps stabilize blood pH
--> By controlling loss of hydrogen ions & bicarbonate ions in urine
- Conserves valuable nutrients
--> By preventing excretion while excepting organic waste products
- Assists liver in detoxifying poisons
The Kidneys
- Located on either side of vertebral column
--> Left kidney lies superior to right kidney
--> Superior surface capped by adrenal gland
--> Position is maintains by: overlying peritoneum, contact with adjacent visceral organs, &
supporting connective tissues
Three Layers of Tissue (Kidneys)
1. Fibrous capsule
- A layer of collagen fibers
- Covers outer surface of entire organ
,2. Perinephric fat
- A thick layer of adipose tissue
- Surrounds renal capsul
3. Renal fascia
- A dense, fibrous outer layer
- Anchors kidney to surrounding structures
Hilum
- Point of entry for real artery & renal nerves
- Point of exit for renal vein & ureter
Renal Sinus
- Internal cavity within kidney
- Lined by fibrous renal capsule
--> Bound to outer surface of structures in renal sinus
--> Stabilizes positions of ureter, renal blood vessels, & nerves
Renal Cortex
- Superficial portion of kidney in content with renal capsule
- Reddish brown & granular
Renal Pyramids
- 6 to 18 conical or triangular structures in renal medulla
--> Base abuts cortex
--> Tip (renal papilla) projects into renal sinus
Renal Columns
- Bands of cortical tissue separates adjacent renal pyramids
- Extend into medulla
- Have distinct granular texture
Kidney Lobe
, Consists of:
- Renal pyramid
- Overlying area of renal cortex
- Adjacent tissues of renal columns
- Produces urine
Renal Papilla
Ducts discharge urine into minor calyx, a cup-shaped drain
Major Calyx
Formed by four or five minor calyces
Renal Pelvis
- Large, funnel-shaped chamber
- Consists of two or three major calyces
- Fills most of renal sinus
- Connected to ureter, which drains kidney
Nephrons
Microscopic, tubular structures in cortex of each renal lobe
- Where urine production beings
- Consists of renal tubular & renal corpuscle
- Spans renal medulla & renal cortex
- Renal tubule
--> Long tubular passageway
--> Begins at renal corpuscle
- Renal corpuscle
--> Spherical structure consisting of: glomerular capsule (Bowman's capsule), cup-shaped
chamber, & capillary network (glomerulus)
