NST 160 FINAL EXAM 2026 COMPLETE
QUESTIONS WITH ALL CORRECT ANSWERS
⩥ What is IDDM2. Answer: A gene that is involved in coding for insulin
synthesis. often genetic mutation in T1DM patients
⩥ What impact does cholecalciferol have on T1D. Answer: A lack of Vit
D in infancy has been linked to an increased risk of T1DM
⩥ What type of obesity has a high association with T2DM. Answer:
Visceral/central obesity
⩥ What are IAPPs?. Answer: Islet amyloid polypeptide fibrils. They
increase beta cell apoptosis
⩥ What is syndrome X and what are its characteristics?. Answer:
Syndrome X is the typical characteristics we see patients have when they
are hyper metabolic. These patients are generally unhealthy.
Characteristics include Central obesity, high blood pressure, high tags,
low HDL- cholesterol and insulin resistance.
⩥ What is MODY?. Answer: Maturity onset diabetes in the young. Its a
type of diabetes characterized by genetic mutations
,⩥ Explain the insulin signaling pathway. Answer: 1) Insulin binds to the
insulin receptor which causes it to self phosphorylate.
2) IRS1 (insulin receptor substrate 1) binds to the phosphorylated
receptor and becomes phosphorylated.
3) This phosphorylation is followed by the binding of the PI-3 Subunit
which is then phosphorylated. The PIP2 subunits are then converted into
PIP3
4) These phosphorylated subunit then binds to PKB which is recruited to
the membrane.
5) The phosphorylated PKB then releases more membrane associated
PKB which then promotes glucose uptake via the GLUT4 transporter.
⩥ What are two adipokines that have anti-diabetogenic effects?. Answer:
Leptin (Stop eating hormone) and Adiponectin (FAO starter)
⩥ Which signaling pathway relates inflammation and Insulin
Resistance? And what drugs can be used to reduce the impacts of
inflammatory processes? How is this pathway activated and what are its
impacts. Answer: NF-kB, Salicylates can be used to reduce the impacts
(aspirin). Its actiavted by high fat diets and inflamation
⩥ What can cause ER stress leading to the activation of the unfolded
protein response pathway?. Answer: Accumulation of lipids in the er
membrane
,⩥ What are the three major signaling molecules involved with the UPR
(unfolded protein response pathway). Answer: IRE1- main signaling
protein that leads to many cascades of ER stress. It will activate the
pathway involving JNK, XBP1, and NF-kB. All of these pathways work
to reduce ER stress. PERK- Main signaling protein that is involved in
stoping protein synthesis. It will phosphorylate eIF2 which will stop the
formation of the 43s complex and therefor inhibits protein synthesis.
This will also stimulate NF-kB. The third signaling molecule is AFT6.
This is activated by ER stress and activates ER stress responses.
⩥ What does IRE1 do? What does it do specific to insulin resistance?.
Answer: It is the main upstream signaling cascade involved in the
response to ER stress. IRE1 activates XBP1 which then works to reduce
the amount of fat and cholesterol within the ER membrane. This works
to reduce Er stress and fat ratios. Specific to insulin resistance, it will
also activate JNK, which phosphorylates IRS1 to inhibit insulin
signaling. It will also signal to IKK which will then activate NF-kB and
⩥ What does PKR do in UPR. Answer: PKR (PERK) will phosphorylate
eIF2alpha . This stops the synthesis of cholesterol. PERK will activate
IKK which inhibits insulin action through a series of transcriptional
events mediated by NF-kB
⩥ What is TNF?. Answer: Its a inflammatory signaling protein. Its main
purpose is to increase inflammation during immune responses.
, ⩥ What is NF-kB. Answer: Protein complex that encodes for responses
to stress involved in many metabolic pathways that are involved in
cellular stress. Overactive NF-kB will cause an increase in inflammation
disrupting normal glucose processing and insulin signaling
⩥ What causes impared FFA oxidation during metabolic overload.
Answer: Increased Malonyl-CoA levels because of increased glucose
levels as well as reduced expression of oxidative enzymes
⩥ What does the accumulation of TG, DAG and ceramide cause when in
the liver?. Answer: activation of ser kinases which phosphorylates IRS
leading to increased insulin resistance and a loss of GNG and
glycogenolysis.
⩥ What is Malonyl-CoA?. Answer: Its a coenzyme which helps in the
formation of FFAs. Increased when glucose levels are high and work to
convert metabolites into FFAs.
⩥ What are the impacts of metabolic overload on muscle cells?. Answer:
Unlike liver cells, chronic exposure to high lipid levels increase FFA
oxidation. This is great, but because of the stress downstream factors are
not available to convert to energy, so oxidative stress occurs in muscle
cells. It will also increase insulin resistance
QUESTIONS WITH ALL CORRECT ANSWERS
⩥ What is IDDM2. Answer: A gene that is involved in coding for insulin
synthesis. often genetic mutation in T1DM patients
⩥ What impact does cholecalciferol have on T1D. Answer: A lack of Vit
D in infancy has been linked to an increased risk of T1DM
⩥ What type of obesity has a high association with T2DM. Answer:
Visceral/central obesity
⩥ What are IAPPs?. Answer: Islet amyloid polypeptide fibrils. They
increase beta cell apoptosis
⩥ What is syndrome X and what are its characteristics?. Answer:
Syndrome X is the typical characteristics we see patients have when they
are hyper metabolic. These patients are generally unhealthy.
Characteristics include Central obesity, high blood pressure, high tags,
low HDL- cholesterol and insulin resistance.
⩥ What is MODY?. Answer: Maturity onset diabetes in the young. Its a
type of diabetes characterized by genetic mutations
,⩥ Explain the insulin signaling pathway. Answer: 1) Insulin binds to the
insulin receptor which causes it to self phosphorylate.
2) IRS1 (insulin receptor substrate 1) binds to the phosphorylated
receptor and becomes phosphorylated.
3) This phosphorylation is followed by the binding of the PI-3 Subunit
which is then phosphorylated. The PIP2 subunits are then converted into
PIP3
4) These phosphorylated subunit then binds to PKB which is recruited to
the membrane.
5) The phosphorylated PKB then releases more membrane associated
PKB which then promotes glucose uptake via the GLUT4 transporter.
⩥ What are two adipokines that have anti-diabetogenic effects?. Answer:
Leptin (Stop eating hormone) and Adiponectin (FAO starter)
⩥ Which signaling pathway relates inflammation and Insulin
Resistance? And what drugs can be used to reduce the impacts of
inflammatory processes? How is this pathway activated and what are its
impacts. Answer: NF-kB, Salicylates can be used to reduce the impacts
(aspirin). Its actiavted by high fat diets and inflamation
⩥ What can cause ER stress leading to the activation of the unfolded
protein response pathway?. Answer: Accumulation of lipids in the er
membrane
,⩥ What are the three major signaling molecules involved with the UPR
(unfolded protein response pathway). Answer: IRE1- main signaling
protein that leads to many cascades of ER stress. It will activate the
pathway involving JNK, XBP1, and NF-kB. All of these pathways work
to reduce ER stress. PERK- Main signaling protein that is involved in
stoping protein synthesis. It will phosphorylate eIF2 which will stop the
formation of the 43s complex and therefor inhibits protein synthesis.
This will also stimulate NF-kB. The third signaling molecule is AFT6.
This is activated by ER stress and activates ER stress responses.
⩥ What does IRE1 do? What does it do specific to insulin resistance?.
Answer: It is the main upstream signaling cascade involved in the
response to ER stress. IRE1 activates XBP1 which then works to reduce
the amount of fat and cholesterol within the ER membrane. This works
to reduce Er stress and fat ratios. Specific to insulin resistance, it will
also activate JNK, which phosphorylates IRS1 to inhibit insulin
signaling. It will also signal to IKK which will then activate NF-kB and
⩥ What does PKR do in UPR. Answer: PKR (PERK) will phosphorylate
eIF2alpha . This stops the synthesis of cholesterol. PERK will activate
IKK which inhibits insulin action through a series of transcriptional
events mediated by NF-kB
⩥ What is TNF?. Answer: Its a inflammatory signaling protein. Its main
purpose is to increase inflammation during immune responses.
, ⩥ What is NF-kB. Answer: Protein complex that encodes for responses
to stress involved in many metabolic pathways that are involved in
cellular stress. Overactive NF-kB will cause an increase in inflammation
disrupting normal glucose processing and insulin signaling
⩥ What causes impared FFA oxidation during metabolic overload.
Answer: Increased Malonyl-CoA levels because of increased glucose
levels as well as reduced expression of oxidative enzymes
⩥ What does the accumulation of TG, DAG and ceramide cause when in
the liver?. Answer: activation of ser kinases which phosphorylates IRS
leading to increased insulin resistance and a loss of GNG and
glycogenolysis.
⩥ What is Malonyl-CoA?. Answer: Its a coenzyme which helps in the
formation of FFAs. Increased when glucose levels are high and work to
convert metabolites into FFAs.
⩥ What are the impacts of metabolic overload on muscle cells?. Answer:
Unlike liver cells, chronic exposure to high lipid levels increase FFA
oxidation. This is great, but because of the stress downstream factors are
not available to convert to energy, so oxidative stress occurs in muscle
cells. It will also increase insulin resistance
