Knowledge In Organization Summary
Table of Content
Lecture 1 – General Introduction ..................................................... 2
Lecture 2 - The Neo-functionalist Discourse Part 1 ........................ 8
Lecture 3 - Neo-functionalist perspective Part 2 ........................... 15
Lecture 4 - Social-Constructivist Perspective Part 1 .................... 26
Lecture 5: Social-Constructivist Perspective Part 2 ..................... 33
Lecture 6: Critical Discourse Perspective Part 1 .......................... 39
Lecture 7: Critical Discourse Perspective Part 2 .......................... 47
Lecture 8: Critical and Dialogic Discourse .................................... 59
,Lecture 1 – General Introduction
What Is Knowledge?
There are two types of philosophical questions about knowledge: ontological and
epistemological.
Ontological Questions (The Nature of Knowledge)
Ontology = the study of what exists - so “ontological questions” ask what kind of thing
knowledge is and how it exists.
Here are the main ontological questions listed:
1. Does knowledge exist independently, or only in relation to people (knowers)?
→ This means: is knowledge something that exists “out there,” separate from humans
(like an object or fact), or does it only exist when someone knows or understands it?
Example:
o Independent view: “The law of gravity exists whether I know it or not.”
o Relational view: “Knowledge of gravity only exists when someone
understands and applies it.”
2. Materiality of knowledge – is knowledge something physical, mental, or both?
o Physical: Can knowledge be stored (like in books, computers, files)?
→ e.g., a manual in your company’s database.
o Mental: Is it something in your mind, like thought patterns or understanding?
→ e.g., how you mentally know how to ride a bike.
o Both: Knowledge can also be embodied - in bodily skills (like dancing,
cooking, or surgery) and social practices (like teamwork). These forms are
often tacit, meaning they are not easy to express in words.
3. Sociology of knowledge:
This studies how society influences what we call knowledge.
→ Example: some beliefs may be accepted as “knowledge” only because society
agrees on it. It also questions: is an individual’s belief, even if justified, really
knowledge if no one else agrees or if it doesn’t fit the social understanding?
Epistemological Questions (How Do We Know?)
Epistemology = the study of how we know what we know.
It asks how knowledge is created, justified, and validated.
1. Justified true belief:
Traditionally, philosophers defined knowledge as a belief that is:
o True,
o Believed, and
o Justified (you have good reasons or evidence for it).
2. Empirical knowledge:
Knowledge that comes from observation and experience.
There are different philosophical approaches to this:
o Positivists: Believe knowledge should come from objective, measurable facts.
, o Interpretivists: Believe knowledge is shaped by people’s interpretations and
meanings.
o Pragmatists: Focus on whether knowledge is useful and works in practice.
3. Challenges to knowledge:
o We can’t predict the future perfectly.
o Memory can fail - so not all “remembered” knowledge is reliable.
o Knowledge is not neutral - it’s influenced by social norms, power, and bias.
o Power relations influence what counts as valid knowledge.
o Skepticism: Some argue anything can be considered knowledge depending on
context.
o Tacitness: Some knowledge cannot be easily expressed or shared (e.g., “gut
feeling”).
o Digital age: Technology changes how knowledge is stored, shared, and lost.
What Is Management?
Management = the processes, practices, and skills used to coordinate people, resources, and
activities to achieve a goal.
It’s about organization and control - making sure work is done efficiently and goals are met.
Relationship Between Management and Knowledge
“The more emphasis on management, the less it is about knowledge…”
“The more emphasis on knowledge, the less management matters.”
Alvesson & Kärreman (2001)
→ This means:
• If you focus too much on strict management (rules, control, structure), you risk
suppressing creativity and learning, which are essential for knowledge.
• But if you focus only on free-flowing knowledge (ideas, flexibility, innovation),
management control decreases.
• There’s a tension between the two.
What Is Knowledge Management?
(Newell, 2015): Managing knowledge processes and knowledge work, not just managing
knowledge itself.
So, instead of managing “knowledge” like it’s a physical thing (e.g., a file), it’s about
managing how knowledge is created, shared, and used inside organizations - the processes
and people behind it.
Why Should We Manage Knowledge?
, • Continuity: To make sure important knowledge isn’t lost when employees leave.
• Prevents reinventing the wheel: People don’t have to start from scratch every time.
• Enables innovation: By combining existing ideas in new ways.
• Learning from the past: Using past successes and mistakes to improve.
Epistemological Dimension
Epistemology = the philosophy about what counts as “knowledge.”
It asks:
• How do we define truth?
• What makes something “valid knowledge”?
There are two main views here:
1. Dualism (“What is knowledge?”)
• Knowledge is either objective or subjective (either/or).
• These are seen as separate and opposite things.
• Knowledge is fixed, static - like an object that exists “frozen in time.”
• Each object or idea has its own identity.
• Knowledge flows in one direction (uni-directional).
→ Example: “There is one correct answer, and knowledge means knowing that answer.”
2. Duality (“When is knowledge?”)
• Knowledge and context depend on each other - you can’t separate them.
• Focus on pragmatism (usefulness) and theories of practice (knowledge in action).
• Knowledge is continuously shaped by what’s happening around it (situated practice).
→ Example: “What counts as knowledge depends on where, when, and how it’s used.”
Social Order Dimension
This looks at how knowledge fits into society and organizations, so does it support order or
challenge it?
There are two ends of this spectrum:
a) Sociology of Regulation (Consensus)
• Society is viewed as moving toward stability, order, and agreement.
• People share trust, common interests, and cooperation.
• Science and knowledge are seen as neutral (not political).
b) Sociology of Radical Change (Dissensus)
• Society is full of conflict, power struggles, and constant change.
• Order is only temporary - always being challenged.
• Knowledge is political - it can support or resist power.
• There is suspicion and disagreement instead of consensus.
, Four Discourses on Knowledge Management (Schultze & Stabell,
2004)
This framework combines the Epistemology axis and the Social Order axis:
1️. Dialogical Discourse (Practice-based + Dissensus)
• Knowledge = discipline
• Focus: Constant questioning and challenging of what we “know.”
• It’s about deconstructing fixed ideas and opening space for multiple perspectives.
• Knowledge is never finished - it’s a continuous process.
• Goal: Avoid becoming rigid or dominated by power structures.
→ Example: Teams openly challenge how decisions are made or what is “true.”
2️. Critical Discourse (Objectivist + Dissensus)
• Knowledge = power
• Focus: How knowledge is used to control or liberate people.
• Often linked to Marxist ideas - examining how organizations use knowledge to
dominate workers.
• It sees knowledge management as a political issue (who owns and controls
knowledge).
• Can be anti-management - siding with workers’ empowerment.
3️. Constructivist Discourse (Practice-based + Consensus)
• Knowledge = mind
• Knowledge is socially constructed - created through interaction and shared
experiences.
• It exists in practice, not in documents.
• Emphasizes collaboration, teamwork, and shared understanding.
Table of Content
Lecture 1 – General Introduction ..................................................... 2
Lecture 2 - The Neo-functionalist Discourse Part 1 ........................ 8
Lecture 3 - Neo-functionalist perspective Part 2 ........................... 15
Lecture 4 - Social-Constructivist Perspective Part 1 .................... 26
Lecture 5: Social-Constructivist Perspective Part 2 ..................... 33
Lecture 6: Critical Discourse Perspective Part 1 .......................... 39
Lecture 7: Critical Discourse Perspective Part 2 .......................... 47
Lecture 8: Critical and Dialogic Discourse .................................... 59
,Lecture 1 – General Introduction
What Is Knowledge?
There are two types of philosophical questions about knowledge: ontological and
epistemological.
Ontological Questions (The Nature of Knowledge)
Ontology = the study of what exists - so “ontological questions” ask what kind of thing
knowledge is and how it exists.
Here are the main ontological questions listed:
1. Does knowledge exist independently, or only in relation to people (knowers)?
→ This means: is knowledge something that exists “out there,” separate from humans
(like an object or fact), or does it only exist when someone knows or understands it?
Example:
o Independent view: “The law of gravity exists whether I know it or not.”
o Relational view: “Knowledge of gravity only exists when someone
understands and applies it.”
2. Materiality of knowledge – is knowledge something physical, mental, or both?
o Physical: Can knowledge be stored (like in books, computers, files)?
→ e.g., a manual in your company’s database.
o Mental: Is it something in your mind, like thought patterns or understanding?
→ e.g., how you mentally know how to ride a bike.
o Both: Knowledge can also be embodied - in bodily skills (like dancing,
cooking, or surgery) and social practices (like teamwork). These forms are
often tacit, meaning they are not easy to express in words.
3. Sociology of knowledge:
This studies how society influences what we call knowledge.
→ Example: some beliefs may be accepted as “knowledge” only because society
agrees on it. It also questions: is an individual’s belief, even if justified, really
knowledge if no one else agrees or if it doesn’t fit the social understanding?
Epistemological Questions (How Do We Know?)
Epistemology = the study of how we know what we know.
It asks how knowledge is created, justified, and validated.
1. Justified true belief:
Traditionally, philosophers defined knowledge as a belief that is:
o True,
o Believed, and
o Justified (you have good reasons or evidence for it).
2. Empirical knowledge:
Knowledge that comes from observation and experience.
There are different philosophical approaches to this:
o Positivists: Believe knowledge should come from objective, measurable facts.
, o Interpretivists: Believe knowledge is shaped by people’s interpretations and
meanings.
o Pragmatists: Focus on whether knowledge is useful and works in practice.
3. Challenges to knowledge:
o We can’t predict the future perfectly.
o Memory can fail - so not all “remembered” knowledge is reliable.
o Knowledge is not neutral - it’s influenced by social norms, power, and bias.
o Power relations influence what counts as valid knowledge.
o Skepticism: Some argue anything can be considered knowledge depending on
context.
o Tacitness: Some knowledge cannot be easily expressed or shared (e.g., “gut
feeling”).
o Digital age: Technology changes how knowledge is stored, shared, and lost.
What Is Management?
Management = the processes, practices, and skills used to coordinate people, resources, and
activities to achieve a goal.
It’s about organization and control - making sure work is done efficiently and goals are met.
Relationship Between Management and Knowledge
“The more emphasis on management, the less it is about knowledge…”
“The more emphasis on knowledge, the less management matters.”
Alvesson & Kärreman (2001)
→ This means:
• If you focus too much on strict management (rules, control, structure), you risk
suppressing creativity and learning, which are essential for knowledge.
• But if you focus only on free-flowing knowledge (ideas, flexibility, innovation),
management control decreases.
• There’s a tension between the two.
What Is Knowledge Management?
(Newell, 2015): Managing knowledge processes and knowledge work, not just managing
knowledge itself.
So, instead of managing “knowledge” like it’s a physical thing (e.g., a file), it’s about
managing how knowledge is created, shared, and used inside organizations - the processes
and people behind it.
Why Should We Manage Knowledge?
, • Continuity: To make sure important knowledge isn’t lost when employees leave.
• Prevents reinventing the wheel: People don’t have to start from scratch every time.
• Enables innovation: By combining existing ideas in new ways.
• Learning from the past: Using past successes and mistakes to improve.
Epistemological Dimension
Epistemology = the philosophy about what counts as “knowledge.”
It asks:
• How do we define truth?
• What makes something “valid knowledge”?
There are two main views here:
1. Dualism (“What is knowledge?”)
• Knowledge is either objective or subjective (either/or).
• These are seen as separate and opposite things.
• Knowledge is fixed, static - like an object that exists “frozen in time.”
• Each object or idea has its own identity.
• Knowledge flows in one direction (uni-directional).
→ Example: “There is one correct answer, and knowledge means knowing that answer.”
2. Duality (“When is knowledge?”)
• Knowledge and context depend on each other - you can’t separate them.
• Focus on pragmatism (usefulness) and theories of practice (knowledge in action).
• Knowledge is continuously shaped by what’s happening around it (situated practice).
→ Example: “What counts as knowledge depends on where, when, and how it’s used.”
Social Order Dimension
This looks at how knowledge fits into society and organizations, so does it support order or
challenge it?
There are two ends of this spectrum:
a) Sociology of Regulation (Consensus)
• Society is viewed as moving toward stability, order, and agreement.
• People share trust, common interests, and cooperation.
• Science and knowledge are seen as neutral (not political).
b) Sociology of Radical Change (Dissensus)
• Society is full of conflict, power struggles, and constant change.
• Order is only temporary - always being challenged.
• Knowledge is political - it can support or resist power.
• There is suspicion and disagreement instead of consensus.
, Four Discourses on Knowledge Management (Schultze & Stabell,
2004)
This framework combines the Epistemology axis and the Social Order axis:
1️. Dialogical Discourse (Practice-based + Dissensus)
• Knowledge = discipline
• Focus: Constant questioning and challenging of what we “know.”
• It’s about deconstructing fixed ideas and opening space for multiple perspectives.
• Knowledge is never finished - it’s a continuous process.
• Goal: Avoid becoming rigid or dominated by power structures.
→ Example: Teams openly challenge how decisions are made or what is “true.”
2️. Critical Discourse (Objectivist + Dissensus)
• Knowledge = power
• Focus: How knowledge is used to control or liberate people.
• Often linked to Marxist ideas - examining how organizations use knowledge to
dominate workers.
• It sees knowledge management as a political issue (who owns and controls
knowledge).
• Can be anti-management - siding with workers’ empowerment.
3️. Constructivist Discourse (Practice-based + Consensus)
• Knowledge = mind
• Knowledge is socially constructed - created through interaction and shared
experiences.
• It exists in practice, not in documents.
• Emphasizes collaboration, teamwork, and shared understanding.
