Research Methods A2
FEATURES OF SCIENCE
Paradigms and Paradigm shifts
Paradigm: a shared, unified set of assumptions and methods which sciences like physics and biology has
Kuhn argued that social sciences (including psychology) lack a universally accepted paradigm and
are best seen as a ‘pre-science’, unlike natural sciences (e.g., biology)
Paradigm shift: Occurs when there is a scientific revolution brought about by new findings and
understanding – a handful of researchers question the accepted paradigm when there is too much
contradictory evidence to ignore.
For example, the shift from a Newtonian paradigm towards Einstein’s theories – or from believing
the world was flat to now believing it is round
Theory construction
Theory: a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours
How to construct a theory:
Facts alone are meaningless – explanations or theories must be constructed to make sense of the
facts
1. Testing a theory depends on being able to make clear and precise statements (hypotheses) on the
basis of the theory
2. A hypothesis can then be tested using scientific methods to determine whether it will be supported
or refuted
3. If the results do not support the hypothesis then we rethink the hypothesis, if the results are
supportive then we can construct our theory
4. This allows us to either support or modify a theory
5. The process of deriving a new hypothesis from an existing theory is known as deduction
Falsifiability
Falsification: In psychology, proof is not a thing – however, we can seek evidence against current theories
and if we are unable to seek evidence against any theories, then we must assume the theory is correct –
this is why we have the null hypothesis, because nothing can be proved, but it can be rejected.
Those theories that survive most attempts to falsify (be proved false) then become the strongest –
not because they are true, but because, despite the best efforts of researchers, they have not been
proved false.
Genuine scientific theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of
being proved false
Popper distinguished between theories which can be tested and falsified, and ‘pseudosciences’
which cannot be falsified (probs like biology and stuff)
Replicability
Replicability is a way of testing the validity of research results
If a scientific theory is to be ‘trusted’, the methods must be repeatable and the findings from it
must be shown to be the same/ similar across a number of different contexts
, In order for replicability to become possible, it is vital that psychologists report their investigations
with as much precision and rigour as possible, so other researchers can seek to verify the findings
they have established.
By repeating a study, we can see the extent to which the findings can be generalized.
Objectivity
Aims to reduce bias in research
Scientific researchers must keep a ‘critical distance’ during research – they must not allow their
personal opinions or biases to discolour the data or influence the behaviour of participants
As a general rule, those methods in psychology that are associated with the greatest level of
control tend to be the most objective
For example: Lab experiments – include the careful control variables and biases that ensure objectivity and
try to diminish subjectivity
Empirical method
Empiricism: Greek word for ‘experience’
Empirical methods emphasise the importance of data collection based on direct sensory
experience
For example: The experimental method and observational method
Early empiricists saw knowledge as determined only by experience and sense perception – thus, a
theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified
E.g., Wundt’s ‘introspection’ was deemed unscientific because it was impossible to empirically test
REPORTING PSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Abstract
Abstract: the key details of the research report
The first section in a journal article is a short summary that includes all the major elements
Includes the aims, hypotheses, method/procedure, results and conclusions
When researching a particular topic, psychologists will often read lots of abstracts in order to
identify those studies that are worthy of further examination
Introduction
Introduction: a look at past research (theories and studies) on a similar topic. Includes the aims and
hypothesis of current investigation
The research review should follow a logical progression – beginning broadly and gradually
becoming more specific util the aims and hypotheses are presented
Method
Method: a description of what the researcher did, including design, sample, materials, procedure, ethics
Split into several subsections, the method should include sufficient detail so that other researchers
are able to precisely replicate the study if they wish
FEATURES OF SCIENCE
Paradigms and Paradigm shifts
Paradigm: a shared, unified set of assumptions and methods which sciences like physics and biology has
Kuhn argued that social sciences (including psychology) lack a universally accepted paradigm and
are best seen as a ‘pre-science’, unlike natural sciences (e.g., biology)
Paradigm shift: Occurs when there is a scientific revolution brought about by new findings and
understanding – a handful of researchers question the accepted paradigm when there is too much
contradictory evidence to ignore.
For example, the shift from a Newtonian paradigm towards Einstein’s theories – or from believing
the world was flat to now believing it is round
Theory construction
Theory: a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours
How to construct a theory:
Facts alone are meaningless – explanations or theories must be constructed to make sense of the
facts
1. Testing a theory depends on being able to make clear and precise statements (hypotheses) on the
basis of the theory
2. A hypothesis can then be tested using scientific methods to determine whether it will be supported
or refuted
3. If the results do not support the hypothesis then we rethink the hypothesis, if the results are
supportive then we can construct our theory
4. This allows us to either support or modify a theory
5. The process of deriving a new hypothesis from an existing theory is known as deduction
Falsifiability
Falsification: In psychology, proof is not a thing – however, we can seek evidence against current theories
and if we are unable to seek evidence against any theories, then we must assume the theory is correct –
this is why we have the null hypothesis, because nothing can be proved, but it can be rejected.
Those theories that survive most attempts to falsify (be proved false) then become the strongest –
not because they are true, but because, despite the best efforts of researchers, they have not been
proved false.
Genuine scientific theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of
being proved false
Popper distinguished between theories which can be tested and falsified, and ‘pseudosciences’
which cannot be falsified (probs like biology and stuff)
Replicability
Replicability is a way of testing the validity of research results
If a scientific theory is to be ‘trusted’, the methods must be repeatable and the findings from it
must be shown to be the same/ similar across a number of different contexts
, In order for replicability to become possible, it is vital that psychologists report their investigations
with as much precision and rigour as possible, so other researchers can seek to verify the findings
they have established.
By repeating a study, we can see the extent to which the findings can be generalized.
Objectivity
Aims to reduce bias in research
Scientific researchers must keep a ‘critical distance’ during research – they must not allow their
personal opinions or biases to discolour the data or influence the behaviour of participants
As a general rule, those methods in psychology that are associated with the greatest level of
control tend to be the most objective
For example: Lab experiments – include the careful control variables and biases that ensure objectivity and
try to diminish subjectivity
Empirical method
Empiricism: Greek word for ‘experience’
Empirical methods emphasise the importance of data collection based on direct sensory
experience
For example: The experimental method and observational method
Early empiricists saw knowledge as determined only by experience and sense perception – thus, a
theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified
E.g., Wundt’s ‘introspection’ was deemed unscientific because it was impossible to empirically test
REPORTING PSYCHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Abstract
Abstract: the key details of the research report
The first section in a journal article is a short summary that includes all the major elements
Includes the aims, hypotheses, method/procedure, results and conclusions
When researching a particular topic, psychologists will often read lots of abstracts in order to
identify those studies that are worthy of further examination
Introduction
Introduction: a look at past research (theories and studies) on a similar topic. Includes the aims and
hypothesis of current investigation
The research review should follow a logical progression – beginning broadly and gradually
becoming more specific util the aims and hypotheses are presented
Method
Method: a description of what the researcher did, including design, sample, materials, procedure, ethics
Split into several subsections, the method should include sufficient detail so that other researchers
are able to precisely replicate the study if they wish
