SCIEg326gEXAMgQUESTIONSgANDgCORRECTgANSWERSg100%gVERIFIEDg(MID
TERM+FINAL)
1. SCIE326g Finalg Studyg Questions
2. SCIEg326gMIDTERM
SCIE326g Finalg Studyg Questions
Whatgisgthegprinciplegofgnon-contradiction?g-gAnswergThegprinciplegofgnon-
contradictiongsaysgthatgeverygstatementgthatginvolvesgagcontradictiongisgtogbegjudgedgasg
false,gandgeverygstatementgthatgisgthegnegationgofgagfalsehoodgisgtogbegjudgedgasgtrue.
Givegangexamplegthatgillustratesgtheglawgofgnon-contradiction.g-
gAnswergThegsentenceg"Allgtrianglesghavegfourgsides"gisgfalse,gsincegitgassertsgthegcontradi
ctiong3=4.gThegnegationgofgthisgsentence,g"Nogtriangleghasgfourgsides",gisgnecessarilygtru
e.
Howgdoesgthegprinciplegofgnon-contradictiongworkgingsciencegreasoning?g-
gAnswergAgcontradictiongappearinggingangargumentgsignifiesgthatgsomethingghasggonegwronggi
ngangargumentgorgthatgangassumptiongderivedgfromgexperiencegneedsgtogbegchecked.
Itgmightginvolvegangillegalgdefinitiongorgrulegofgdeduction,gorgangapplicationgofgangassumpti
ongbeyondgtheglimitgofgitsgapplicability.
Whatgisgthegprinciplegofgsufficientgreason?g-
gAnswergThegprinciplegofgsufficientgreasongstatesgthatgtheregcangbegnogfactgrealgorgexist
ing,gnogstatementgtrue,gunlessgtheregbegagsufficientgreasongwhygitgshouldgbegsogandgn
otgotherwise.
Howgdoesgthegprinciplegofgsufficientgreasongrelategtogthegfundamentalgassumptiongofgscie
nce?g-
gAnswergThegprinciplegofgsufficientgreasongreflectsgthegfundamentalgassumptiongofgscienc
egthatgthegworldgisgordered,gandgthatgthisgordergisgcomprehensiblegtoghumangreason.
,Itgisgbasedgongthegpremisegthatgeverythingghasgag'logos',gorgthegrationalgprinciplegofgbeing,g
andgtheregisgag'ratio'gwhygitgisgsogandgnotgotherwise.
Whatgisgthegprinciplegofgthegidentitygofgindiscernibles?g-
gAgprinciplegthatgtwogthingsgwhichgcangingnogrespectgwhatevergbegdistinguished gfrom geac
hgothergaregtogbegconsideredgasgidentical.
Ifgtheregisgnogpossibilitygofgdistinguishinggtwogthings,gthengtheregisgnogreasongtogtakegthemg
asgdifferentgthings.
Howgdoesgthegprinciplegofgthegidentitygofgindiscerniblesgrelategtogclassificationgandgnami
ng?g-
gAnswergThegprinciplegofgthegidentitygofgindiscerniblesgisgusedgingcategorygformationgandg
naming.
Twogthingsgaregentitledgtogthegsamegnamegifgtheregisgnogessentialgdifferencegbetweengthe
m.
Thegtermg"essentialgdifference"grelatesgtogthegAristoteliangnotiongofgthegessentialgqualiti
esgofgagthingg-gthosegqualitiesgwhichgitgmustgpossessgingordergtogbegentitledgtogitsgname.
Definegtop-downgreasoning.g-gAnswergTop-
downgreasoninggisgangapproachgthatgstartsgwithggeneralgtheories,gconceptsgorgideas,gandg
movesgtowardsgthegspecificgdetails.
Definegbottom-upgreasoning.g-AnswergBottom-
upgreasoninggisgagmethodgthatgproceedsgfromgthegparticulargobservationgorgdetailsgtogth
eggeneralgtheory,gconcept,gorgidea.
Definegdeduction.g-
AnswergDeductiongisgagformgofgreasoninggthatgmovesgfromgtheggeneralgtogthegspecific.gItgin
volvesgthegdrawinggofgspecificgconclusionsgbasedgonggeneralg principlesgorgtheories.
Deductivegreasoninggisgusuallygassociatedgwithgtop-downgapproaches.
,Defineginduction.g-
gAnswergInductiongisgagformgofgreasoninggthatgproceedsgfromgspecificgobservations gorginstan
cesgtoggeneralgprinciplesgorgtheories.
Inductivegreasoningggenerallygproceedsgingagbottom-upgmanner.
Defineganalysis.g-
gAnswergAnalysisginvolvesgbreakinggdowngagcomplexgsystemgorgphenomenongintogitsgcompon
entgpartsgtogunderstandghowgthegsystemgworks.
Itgisgagsimplificationgprocessgthatgdealsgwithganalyzinggthegindividualgpartsgofgagsystem.
Definegsynthesis.g-
gAnswergSynthesisgisgthegprocessgthroughgwhichgindividualgcomponentsgorgelementsgareg
combinedgintogagcomplexgsystem.
Itgisgangintegrationgprocessgthatgshallggiveginsightgintoghowgthegvariousgpartsgofgagsystemginter
actgingproducinggagwhole.
Explaingfunctionalgreasoning.g-
gAnswergFunctionalgreasoninggisgangapproachgthatglooksgtogunderstandgthegpurposegorgfuncti
ongofgagsystem,gcomponent,gorgprocess.
Itgexplainsgwhygthingsgdogwhatgtheygdogingtermsgofgtheirgfunctionalgroles.
Explaingstructuralgreasoning.g-
gAnswergStructuralgreasoninggisgangapproachgthatglooksgtogunderstandgthegphysicalgorgorg
anizationalgstructuregofgagsystem,gcomponent,gorgprocess.
Itgseeksgtogexplainghowgthingsgaregbuiltgorgarranged,gingtermsgofgtheirgstructuralgrelations
hips.
Howgdogtop-down/bottom-
, upgandgdeduction/inductionginterconnectgingscientificgreasoning?g-gAnswergTop-
downgreasoninggoftenginvolvesgdeduction,gasgitgstartsgwith
TERM+FINAL)
1. SCIE326g Finalg Studyg Questions
2. SCIEg326gMIDTERM
SCIE326g Finalg Studyg Questions
Whatgisgthegprinciplegofgnon-contradiction?g-gAnswergThegprinciplegofgnon-
contradictiongsaysgthatgeverygstatementgthatginvolvesgagcontradictiongisgtogbegjudgedgasg
false,gandgeverygstatementgthatgisgthegnegationgofgagfalsehoodgisgtogbegjudgedgasgtrue.
Givegangexamplegthatgillustratesgtheglawgofgnon-contradiction.g-
gAnswergThegsentenceg"Allgtrianglesghavegfourgsides"gisgfalse,gsincegitgassertsgthegcontradi
ctiong3=4.gThegnegationgofgthisgsentence,g"Nogtriangleghasgfourgsides",gisgnecessarilygtru
e.
Howgdoesgthegprinciplegofgnon-contradictiongworkgingsciencegreasoning?g-
gAnswergAgcontradictiongappearinggingangargumentgsignifiesgthatgsomethingghasggonegwronggi
ngangargumentgorgthatgangassumptiongderivedgfromgexperiencegneedsgtogbegchecked.
Itgmightginvolvegangillegalgdefinitiongorgrulegofgdeduction,gorgangapplicationgofgangassumpti
ongbeyondgtheglimitgofgitsgapplicability.
Whatgisgthegprinciplegofgsufficientgreason?g-
gAnswergThegprinciplegofgsufficientgreasongstatesgthatgtheregcangbegnogfactgrealgorgexist
ing,gnogstatementgtrue,gunlessgtheregbegagsufficientgreasongwhygitgshouldgbegsogandgn
otgotherwise.
Howgdoesgthegprinciplegofgsufficientgreasongrelategtogthegfundamentalgassumptiongofgscie
nce?g-
gAnswergThegprinciplegofgsufficientgreasongreflectsgthegfundamentalgassumptiongofgscienc
egthatgthegworldgisgordered,gandgthatgthisgordergisgcomprehensiblegtoghumangreason.
,Itgisgbasedgongthegpremisegthatgeverythingghasgag'logos',gorgthegrationalgprinciplegofgbeing,g
andgtheregisgag'ratio'gwhygitgisgsogandgnotgotherwise.
Whatgisgthegprinciplegofgthegidentitygofgindiscernibles?g-
gAgprinciplegthatgtwogthingsgwhichgcangingnogrespectgwhatevergbegdistinguished gfrom geac
hgothergaregtogbegconsideredgasgidentical.
Ifgtheregisgnogpossibilitygofgdistinguishinggtwogthings,gthengtheregisgnogreasongtogtakegthemg
asgdifferentgthings.
Howgdoesgthegprinciplegofgthegidentitygofgindiscerniblesgrelategtogclassificationgandgnami
ng?g-
gAnswergThegprinciplegofgthegidentitygofgindiscerniblesgisgusedgingcategorygformationgandg
naming.
Twogthingsgaregentitledgtogthegsamegnamegifgtheregisgnogessentialgdifferencegbetweengthe
m.
Thegtermg"essentialgdifference"grelatesgtogthegAristoteliangnotiongofgthegessentialgqualiti
esgofgagthingg-gthosegqualitiesgwhichgitgmustgpossessgingordergtogbegentitledgtogitsgname.
Definegtop-downgreasoning.g-gAnswergTop-
downgreasoninggisgangapproachgthatgstartsgwithggeneralgtheories,gconceptsgorgideas,gandg
movesgtowardsgthegspecificgdetails.
Definegbottom-upgreasoning.g-AnswergBottom-
upgreasoninggisgagmethodgthatgproceedsgfromgthegparticulargobservationgorgdetailsgtogth
eggeneralgtheory,gconcept,gorgidea.
Definegdeduction.g-
AnswergDeductiongisgagformgofgreasoninggthatgmovesgfromgtheggeneralgtogthegspecific.gItgin
volvesgthegdrawinggofgspecificgconclusionsgbasedgonggeneralg principlesgorgtheories.
Deductivegreasoninggisgusuallygassociatedgwithgtop-downgapproaches.
,Defineginduction.g-
gAnswergInductiongisgagformgofgreasoninggthatgproceedsgfromgspecificgobservations gorginstan
cesgtoggeneralgprinciplesgorgtheories.
Inductivegreasoningggenerallygproceedsgingagbottom-upgmanner.
Defineganalysis.g-
gAnswergAnalysisginvolvesgbreakinggdowngagcomplexgsystemgorgphenomenongintogitsgcompon
entgpartsgtogunderstandghowgthegsystemgworks.
Itgisgagsimplificationgprocessgthatgdealsgwithganalyzinggthegindividualgpartsgofgagsystem.
Definegsynthesis.g-
gAnswergSynthesisgisgthegprocessgthroughgwhichgindividualgcomponentsgorgelementsgareg
combinedgintogagcomplexgsystem.
Itgisgangintegrationgprocessgthatgshallggiveginsightgintoghowgthegvariousgpartsgofgagsystemginter
actgingproducinggagwhole.
Explaingfunctionalgreasoning.g-
gAnswergFunctionalgreasoninggisgangapproachgthatglooksgtogunderstandgthegpurposegorgfuncti
ongofgagsystem,gcomponent,gorgprocess.
Itgexplainsgwhygthingsgdogwhatgtheygdogingtermsgofgtheirgfunctionalgroles.
Explaingstructuralgreasoning.g-
gAnswergStructuralgreasoninggisgangapproachgthatglooksgtogunderstandgthegphysicalgorgorg
anizationalgstructuregofgagsystem,gcomponent,gorgprocess.
Itgseeksgtogexplainghowgthingsgaregbuiltgorgarranged,gingtermsgofgtheirgstructuralgrelations
hips.
Howgdogtop-down/bottom-
, upgandgdeduction/inductionginterconnectgingscientificgreasoning?g-gAnswergTop-
downgreasoninggoftenginvolvesgdeduction,gasgitgstartsgwith
