2017
Summary BRM
LUUK BOGAARTS
1244477
PRE-MASTER PROGRAMME
ZUYD UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES
,BRM Summary
Table of content
Table of content .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 1 The nature of business and management research ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 Why study research?............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.2 What is research?.................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Is research always problem-solving based?........................................................................................................................................ 10
1.4 What makes good research? .............................................................................................................................................................. 10
1.5 Research philosophies ........................................................................................................................................................................ 11
1.6 Scientific reasoning ............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
1.7 Understanding theory: components and connections ....................................................................................................................... 12
Variables ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.8 Propositions and hypotheses .............................................................................................................................................................. 13
What makes a good hypothesis?.............................................................................................................................................................. 14
1.9 Theory ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Chapter 2 The research process and proposal ............................................................................................................................................... 15
2.1 The research process .......................................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Management research and measurement questions ........................................................................................................................ 16
Research questions................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Investigative questions ............................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Measurement questions .......................................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.3 Research process................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Issues in the research problem formulation ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Data collection .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Resource allocation and budget ............................................................................................................................................................... 18
Research evaluation ................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
2.4 The research proposal......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Proposal content ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
The purpose of the research proposal ..................................................................................................................................................... 18
Sponsor uses ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Researcher benefits .................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
Types of research proposal ...................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Structuring the research proposal ............................................................................................................................................................ 19
Evaluation of the research proposal ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
Chapter 3 Literature review ........................................................................................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Aims and objectives of a review ......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Meta-analysis............................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
General problems with literature review ................................................................................................................................................. 22
3.2 Assessment of good literature ............................................................................................................................................................ 22
3.3 Critical review...................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Process and organization .................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Literature research ................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Literature sources ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Search process .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
1
,BRM Summary
The internet as a search engine ............................................................................................................................................................... 24
Reading and evaluating research ............................................................................................................................................................. 24
How to read? ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
The writing process (for writing a review) ............................................................................................................................................... 25
Synthesizing the literature ....................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Effective criticism...................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Literature review as independent scientific contribution ........................................................................................................................ 26
Chapter 4 Ethics in business research ............................................................................................................................................................ 27
4.1 What are research ethics? .................................................................................................................................................................. 27
4.2 Ethical treatment of participants ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
Informed consent ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Debriefing participants ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Rights to privacy ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
4.3 Data collection in cyberspace ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
4.4 Ethics and the sponsor ........................................................................................................................................................................ 28
Right to quality research .......................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Sponsor ethics .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
4.5 Researchers and team members ........................................................................................................................................................ 29
Right to safety........................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Ethical behaviour of assistants ................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Protection of anonymity ........................................................................................................................................................................... 29
4.6 Ethical obligations to the research community .................................................................................................................................. 29
4.7 Ethical approval procedures ............................................................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 5 Quantitative and qualitative research ........................................................................................................................................... 31
5.1 Qualitative and quantitative ............................................................................................................................................................... 31
5.2 Research design classifications ........................................................................................................................................................... 31
Classifying research design using 8 different descriptions....................................................................................................................... 32
5.3 Exploratory, descriptive and causal studies ........................................................................................................................................ 33
Exploratory studies ................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Descriptive studies.................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Causal studies ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Testing causal hypotheses ........................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Chapter 9 Secondary data and archival sources ............................................................................................................................................ 37
9.1 Secondary data.................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Advantages of secondary data ................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Disadvantages of secondary data ............................................................................................................................................................. 37
9.2 Sources of secondary data .................................................................................................................................................................. 38
9.3 How to use secondary data efficiently................................................................................................................................................ 38
9.4 Secondary data in qualitative research............................................................................................................................................... 38
9.5 Data-mining ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Big data ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Chapter 6 Sampling strategies........................................................................................................................................................................ 41
6.1 Unit of analysis .................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
6.2 The nature of sampling ....................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Reasons for sampling................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
2
,BRM Summary
6.3 Sample versus census ......................................................................................................................................................................... 42
6.4 types of sample design........................................................................................................................................................................ 42
Representation ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Element selection ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Probability sampling ................................................................................................................................................................................. 43
6.5 Steps in sampling design ..................................................................................................................................................................... 43
(1) What is the relevant population? ....................................................................................................................................................... 43
(2) What are the parameters of interest? (Variables) .............................................................................................................................. 43
(3) What is the sampling frame? .............................................................................................................................................................. 44
(4) What is the type of sample? ............................................................................................................................................................... 44
(5) What sample size is need? .................................................................................................................................................................. 44
(6) How much will it cost? ........................................................................................................................................................................ 44
6.6 Complex probability sampling ............................................................................................................................................................ 45
Systematic sampling ................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
Stratified sampling .................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Cluster sampling ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Double sampling (or sequential sampling or multi-phase sampling)....................................................................................................... 47
6.7 Non-probability sampling.................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Usefulness of non-probability samples .................................................................................................................................................... 48
Practical considerations for non-probability samples .............................................................................................................................. 48
Convenience sampling .............................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Purposive sampling................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Snowball sampling .................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
6.8 Sampling on the internet .................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Internet populations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Internet sampling ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 7 Primary data collection with surveys ............................................................................................................................................ 51
7.1 Characteristics of data collection........................................................................................................................................................ 51
Data collection approach.......................................................................................................................................................................... 51
7.2 Characteristics of the communication approach ................................................................................................................................ 51
Factors influencing participant motivation .............................................................................................................................................. 51
7.3 Choosing a communication method ................................................................................................................................................... 52
Information ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Motivation to participate ......................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Increasing participant receptiveness ........................................................................................................................................................ 52
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 52
Establishing a good relationship ............................................................................................................................................................... 52
Dealing with non-response error ............................................................................................................................................................. 53
7.4 Communication methods compared .................................................................................................................................................. 53
7.5 Personal interviews ............................................................................................................................................................................. 53
Evaluation of the personal interview ....................................................................................................................................................... 53
Interviewing techniques ........................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Recording the interview ........................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Response error ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
7.6 Telephone interviews.......................................................................................................................................................................... 55
3
,BRM Summary
Evaluation of the telephone interview ..................................................................................................................................................... 55
7.7 Self-administered surveys ................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Advantages of self-administered surveys................................................................................................................................................. 55
Disadvantages of self-administered surveys ............................................................................................................................................ 56
Reducing non-response error ................................................................................................................................................................... 56
7.8 Web-based surveys ............................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Advantages of web-based surveys ........................................................................................................................................................... 57
Disadvantages of web-based surveys....................................................................................................................................................... 57
7.9 Structured observations...................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Advantages of observations ..................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Limitations of observational method ....................................................................................................................................................... 57
Conducting research observation............................................................................................................................................................. 58
Behavioural and non-behavioural observation ........................................................................................................................................ 58
Non-behavioural analysis ......................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Behavioural analysis ................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Factual and inferential observations ........................................................................................................................................................ 58
Unobtrusive measures.............................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Chapter 13 Fieldwork: questionnaires and responses .............................................................................................................................. 59
13.1 Developing the instrument design ................................................................................................................................................ 59
13.2 The management research question hierarchy reviewed: phase 1 .............................................................................................. 59
1) Type of data .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
2) Communication approach .................................................................................................................................................................... 60
3) Question structure ............................................................................................................................................................................... 60
4) Disguising objectives and sponsors ...................................................................................................................................................... 60
Preliminary analysis plan .......................................................................................................................................................................... 61
13.3 Constructing and refining the measurement question: phase 2 .................................................................................................. 61
Encourage/stimulate each participant to provide accurate responses ................................................................................................... 61
Encourage/stimulate each participant to provide an adequate amount of information ........................................................................ 61
Discourage each participant from refusing to answer specific questions ............................................................................................... 61
Discourage each participant from early discontinuation of participation ............................................................................................... 61
Leave the participant with a positive attitude about survey participation.............................................................................................. 61
13.4 Question content ........................................................................................................................................................................... 61
1) Should this question be asked? ............................................................................................................................................................ 62
2) Is the question of proper scope and coverage? ................................................................................................................................... 62
3) Can the participant adequately answer the question as asked? ......................................................................................................... 62
4) Will the participant willingly answer the question asked? .................................................................................................................. 62
Question wording ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
13.5 Response strategy ......................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Response strategies illustrated ................................................................................................................................................................ 64
13.6 Sources of existing questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 65
13.7 drafting and refining the instrument: phase 3 .............................................................................................................................. 66
Introduction and participant screening.................................................................................................................................................... 66
Measurement quotation sequencing ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
Instructions ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 68
4
,BRM Summary
Overcoming instrument problems ........................................................................................................................................................... 68
Pre-testing options ................................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Chapter 14 Measurement and scales ........................................................................................................................................................ 71
14.1 The nature of measurement ......................................................................................................................................................... 71
What is measured? ................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
14.2 Data types ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Mapping rules have four characteristics .................................................................................................................................................. 71
Four data types ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Nominal .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Ordinal data .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
Interval data.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
Ratio data.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
14.3 sources of measurement differences ............................................................................................................................................ 72
1. Participant............................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
2. Situational factors ................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
3. Measurer .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
4. Data-collection instrument................................................................................................................................................................... 73
14.4 Characteristics of sound measurement......................................................................................................................................... 73
1. Validity .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
2. Reliability .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 74
3. Practicality ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 76
14.5 The nature of measurement scales ............................................................................................................................................... 76
14.6 Response methods ........................................................................................................................................................................ 78
Rating scales ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Errors to avoid with rating scales ............................................................................................................................................................. 78
Ranking scales ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
14.7 Measurement scale construction .................................................................................................................................................. 79
Arbitrary scaling ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 79
Consensus scaling ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Item analysis scaling ................................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Cumulative scaling .................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Factor scales ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Advanced scaling techniques ................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Chapter 12 Experimentation...................................................................................................................................................................... 81
12.1 What is experimentation? ............................................................................................................................................................. 81
12.2 An evaluation of experiments ....................................................................................................................................................... 81
12.3 Conducting an experiment ............................................................................................................................................................ 82
Selecting relevant variables ...................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Specifying the level(s) of treatment ......................................................................................................................................................... 82
Controlling the experimental environment ............................................................................................................................................. 82
Choosing the experimental design ........................................................................................................................................................... 82
Selecting and assigning subjects............................................................................................................................................................... 82
Pilot testing, revising and testing ............................................................................................................................................................. 83
12.4 Validity in experimentation ........................................................................................................................................................... 83
Internal validity ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
5
,BRM Summary
External validity ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 84
12.5 experimental research designs...................................................................................................................................................... 84
True experimental designs ....................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Field experiments ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Quasi-experiment ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Chapter 8 Primary data collection: qualitative data ...................................................................................................................................... 87
8.1 Qualitative interviews ......................................................................................................................................................................... 87
Purpose: when are qualitative interviews appropriate? .......................................................................................................................... 87
Instruments: questions in semi-structured and unstructured interviews ............................................................................................... 87
Question types.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 88
Practical considerations............................................................................................................................................................................ 88
8.2 Focus groups .................................................................................................................................................................................. 89
Focus group characteristics ...................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Conducting focus groups .......................................................................................................................................................................... 89
8.3 Participant observation ....................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Conducting observational studies ............................................................................................................................................................ 90
Observer – participant relationship. ........................................................................................................................................................ 91
Conducting participant observation ......................................................................................................................................................... 91
Chapter 10 Content analysis and other qualitative approaches ............................................................................................................... 93
10.1 Content analysis ............................................................................................................................................................................ 93
Advantages and disadvantages ................................................................................................................................................................ 93
The process of content analysis ............................................................................................................................................................... 93
10.2 Narrative analysis .......................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Procedure in narrative analysis ................................................................................................................................................................ 94
10.3 ethnographic studies.............................................................................................................................................................................. 95
10.4 Action research .............................................................................................................................................................................. 95
10.5 Grounded theory ........................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Chapter 11 Case studies............................................................................................................................................................................. 97
11.1 Case study objectives .................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Case study objectives ............................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Single versus multiple case studies .......................................................................................................................................................... 97
11.2 The richness of multiple evidence sources ................................................................................................................................... 97
11.3 How to conduct good case study research .............................................................................................................................. 98
Chapter 18 Hypothesis testing ................................................................................................................................................................... 99
18.2 Hypothesis testing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Testing approaches................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Statistical significance............................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Hypothesis testing .................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Type I error ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 100
Type II error ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 100
18.3 Statistical testing procedures ...................................................................................................................................................... 101
Probability values (p values) ................................................................................................................................................................... 101
18.4 Tests of significance..................................................................................................................................................................... 101
Types of tests .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
How to select a test ................................................................................................................................................................................ 102
6
, BRM Summary
One-sample tests .................................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 103
Chi-square test........................................................................................................................................................................................ 103
Two independent samples tests ............................................................................................................................................................. 103
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 103
Two related samples tests ...................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 104
K independent samples’ tests................................................................................................................................................................. 104
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Multiple comparison tests ...................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 104
k-related samples case ........................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 105
7
Summary BRM
LUUK BOGAARTS
1244477
PRE-MASTER PROGRAMME
ZUYD UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES
,BRM Summary
Table of content
Table of content .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 1 The nature of business and management research ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 Why study research?............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.2 What is research?.................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Is research always problem-solving based?........................................................................................................................................ 10
1.4 What makes good research? .............................................................................................................................................................. 10
1.5 Research philosophies ........................................................................................................................................................................ 11
1.6 Scientific reasoning ............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
1.7 Understanding theory: components and connections ....................................................................................................................... 12
Variables ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.8 Propositions and hypotheses .............................................................................................................................................................. 13
What makes a good hypothesis?.............................................................................................................................................................. 14
1.9 Theory ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Chapter 2 The research process and proposal ............................................................................................................................................... 15
2.1 The research process .......................................................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Management research and measurement questions ........................................................................................................................ 16
Research questions................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Investigative questions ............................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Measurement questions .......................................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.3 Research process................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Issues in the research problem formulation ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Data collection .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Resource allocation and budget ............................................................................................................................................................... 18
Research evaluation ................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
2.4 The research proposal......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Proposal content ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
The purpose of the research proposal ..................................................................................................................................................... 18
Sponsor uses ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Researcher benefits .................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
Types of research proposal ...................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Structuring the research proposal ............................................................................................................................................................ 19
Evaluation of the research proposal ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
Chapter 3 Literature review ........................................................................................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Aims and objectives of a review ......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Meta-analysis............................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
General problems with literature review ................................................................................................................................................. 22
3.2 Assessment of good literature ............................................................................................................................................................ 22
3.3 Critical review...................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Process and organization .................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Literature research ................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Literature sources ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Search process .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
1
,BRM Summary
The internet as a search engine ............................................................................................................................................................... 24
Reading and evaluating research ............................................................................................................................................................. 24
How to read? ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
The writing process (for writing a review) ............................................................................................................................................... 25
Synthesizing the literature ....................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Effective criticism...................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Literature review as independent scientific contribution ........................................................................................................................ 26
Chapter 4 Ethics in business research ............................................................................................................................................................ 27
4.1 What are research ethics? .................................................................................................................................................................. 27
4.2 Ethical treatment of participants ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
Informed consent ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Debriefing participants ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Rights to privacy ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
4.3 Data collection in cyberspace ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
4.4 Ethics and the sponsor ........................................................................................................................................................................ 28
Right to quality research .......................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Sponsor ethics .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
4.5 Researchers and team members ........................................................................................................................................................ 29
Right to safety........................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Ethical behaviour of assistants ................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Protection of anonymity ........................................................................................................................................................................... 29
4.6 Ethical obligations to the research community .................................................................................................................................. 29
4.7 Ethical approval procedures ............................................................................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 5 Quantitative and qualitative research ........................................................................................................................................... 31
5.1 Qualitative and quantitative ............................................................................................................................................................... 31
5.2 Research design classifications ........................................................................................................................................................... 31
Classifying research design using 8 different descriptions....................................................................................................................... 32
5.3 Exploratory, descriptive and causal studies ........................................................................................................................................ 33
Exploratory studies ................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Descriptive studies.................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Causal studies ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Testing causal hypotheses ........................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Chapter 9 Secondary data and archival sources ............................................................................................................................................ 37
9.1 Secondary data.................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Advantages of secondary data ................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Disadvantages of secondary data ............................................................................................................................................................. 37
9.2 Sources of secondary data .................................................................................................................................................................. 38
9.3 How to use secondary data efficiently................................................................................................................................................ 38
9.4 Secondary data in qualitative research............................................................................................................................................... 38
9.5 Data-mining ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Big data ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Chapter 6 Sampling strategies........................................................................................................................................................................ 41
6.1 Unit of analysis .................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
6.2 The nature of sampling ....................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Reasons for sampling................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
2
,BRM Summary
6.3 Sample versus census ......................................................................................................................................................................... 42
6.4 types of sample design........................................................................................................................................................................ 42
Representation ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Element selection ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Probability sampling ................................................................................................................................................................................. 43
6.5 Steps in sampling design ..................................................................................................................................................................... 43
(1) What is the relevant population? ....................................................................................................................................................... 43
(2) What are the parameters of interest? (Variables) .............................................................................................................................. 43
(3) What is the sampling frame? .............................................................................................................................................................. 44
(4) What is the type of sample? ............................................................................................................................................................... 44
(5) What sample size is need? .................................................................................................................................................................. 44
(6) How much will it cost? ........................................................................................................................................................................ 44
6.6 Complex probability sampling ............................................................................................................................................................ 45
Systematic sampling ................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
Stratified sampling .................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Cluster sampling ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Double sampling (or sequential sampling or multi-phase sampling)....................................................................................................... 47
6.7 Non-probability sampling.................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Usefulness of non-probability samples .................................................................................................................................................... 48
Practical considerations for non-probability samples .............................................................................................................................. 48
Convenience sampling .............................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Purposive sampling................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Snowball sampling .................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
6.8 Sampling on the internet .................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Internet populations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Internet sampling ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 7 Primary data collection with surveys ............................................................................................................................................ 51
7.1 Characteristics of data collection........................................................................................................................................................ 51
Data collection approach.......................................................................................................................................................................... 51
7.2 Characteristics of the communication approach ................................................................................................................................ 51
Factors influencing participant motivation .............................................................................................................................................. 51
7.3 Choosing a communication method ................................................................................................................................................... 52
Information ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Motivation to participate ......................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Increasing participant receptiveness ........................................................................................................................................................ 52
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 52
Establishing a good relationship ............................................................................................................................................................... 52
Dealing with non-response error ............................................................................................................................................................. 53
7.4 Communication methods compared .................................................................................................................................................. 53
7.5 Personal interviews ............................................................................................................................................................................. 53
Evaluation of the personal interview ....................................................................................................................................................... 53
Interviewing techniques ........................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Recording the interview ........................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Response error ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
7.6 Telephone interviews.......................................................................................................................................................................... 55
3
,BRM Summary
Evaluation of the telephone interview ..................................................................................................................................................... 55
7.7 Self-administered surveys ................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Advantages of self-administered surveys................................................................................................................................................. 55
Disadvantages of self-administered surveys ............................................................................................................................................ 56
Reducing non-response error ................................................................................................................................................................... 56
7.8 Web-based surveys ............................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Advantages of web-based surveys ........................................................................................................................................................... 57
Disadvantages of web-based surveys....................................................................................................................................................... 57
7.9 Structured observations...................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Advantages of observations ..................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Limitations of observational method ....................................................................................................................................................... 57
Conducting research observation............................................................................................................................................................. 58
Behavioural and non-behavioural observation ........................................................................................................................................ 58
Non-behavioural analysis ......................................................................................................................................................................... 58
Behavioural analysis ................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Factual and inferential observations ........................................................................................................................................................ 58
Unobtrusive measures.............................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Chapter 13 Fieldwork: questionnaires and responses .............................................................................................................................. 59
13.1 Developing the instrument design ................................................................................................................................................ 59
13.2 The management research question hierarchy reviewed: phase 1 .............................................................................................. 59
1) Type of data .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
2) Communication approach .................................................................................................................................................................... 60
3) Question structure ............................................................................................................................................................................... 60
4) Disguising objectives and sponsors ...................................................................................................................................................... 60
Preliminary analysis plan .......................................................................................................................................................................... 61
13.3 Constructing and refining the measurement question: phase 2 .................................................................................................. 61
Encourage/stimulate each participant to provide accurate responses ................................................................................................... 61
Encourage/stimulate each participant to provide an adequate amount of information ........................................................................ 61
Discourage each participant from refusing to answer specific questions ............................................................................................... 61
Discourage each participant from early discontinuation of participation ............................................................................................... 61
Leave the participant with a positive attitude about survey participation.............................................................................................. 61
13.4 Question content ........................................................................................................................................................................... 61
1) Should this question be asked? ............................................................................................................................................................ 62
2) Is the question of proper scope and coverage? ................................................................................................................................... 62
3) Can the participant adequately answer the question as asked? ......................................................................................................... 62
4) Will the participant willingly answer the question asked? .................................................................................................................. 62
Question wording ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
13.5 Response strategy ......................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Response strategies illustrated ................................................................................................................................................................ 64
13.6 Sources of existing questions ........................................................................................................................................................ 65
13.7 drafting and refining the instrument: phase 3 .............................................................................................................................. 66
Introduction and participant screening.................................................................................................................................................... 66
Measurement quotation sequencing ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
Instructions ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 68
4
,BRM Summary
Overcoming instrument problems ........................................................................................................................................................... 68
Pre-testing options ................................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Chapter 14 Measurement and scales ........................................................................................................................................................ 71
14.1 The nature of measurement ......................................................................................................................................................... 71
What is measured? ................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
14.2 Data types ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Mapping rules have four characteristics .................................................................................................................................................. 71
Four data types ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Nominal .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Ordinal data .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
Interval data.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
Ratio data.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
14.3 sources of measurement differences ............................................................................................................................................ 72
1. Participant............................................................................................................................................................................................. 72
2. Situational factors ................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
3. Measurer .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
4. Data-collection instrument................................................................................................................................................................... 73
14.4 Characteristics of sound measurement......................................................................................................................................... 73
1. Validity .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
2. Reliability .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 74
3. Practicality ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 76
14.5 The nature of measurement scales ............................................................................................................................................... 76
14.6 Response methods ........................................................................................................................................................................ 78
Rating scales ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Errors to avoid with rating scales ............................................................................................................................................................. 78
Ranking scales ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
14.7 Measurement scale construction .................................................................................................................................................. 79
Arbitrary scaling ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 79
Consensus scaling ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Item analysis scaling ................................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Cumulative scaling .................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Factor scales ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Advanced scaling techniques ................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Chapter 12 Experimentation...................................................................................................................................................................... 81
12.1 What is experimentation? ............................................................................................................................................................. 81
12.2 An evaluation of experiments ....................................................................................................................................................... 81
12.3 Conducting an experiment ............................................................................................................................................................ 82
Selecting relevant variables ...................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Specifying the level(s) of treatment ......................................................................................................................................................... 82
Controlling the experimental environment ............................................................................................................................................. 82
Choosing the experimental design ........................................................................................................................................................... 82
Selecting and assigning subjects............................................................................................................................................................... 82
Pilot testing, revising and testing ............................................................................................................................................................. 83
12.4 Validity in experimentation ........................................................................................................................................................... 83
Internal validity ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
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,BRM Summary
External validity ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 84
12.5 experimental research designs...................................................................................................................................................... 84
True experimental designs ....................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Field experiments ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Quasi-experiment ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Chapter 8 Primary data collection: qualitative data ...................................................................................................................................... 87
8.1 Qualitative interviews ......................................................................................................................................................................... 87
Purpose: when are qualitative interviews appropriate? .......................................................................................................................... 87
Instruments: questions in semi-structured and unstructured interviews ............................................................................................... 87
Question types.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 88
Practical considerations............................................................................................................................................................................ 88
8.2 Focus groups .................................................................................................................................................................................. 89
Focus group characteristics ...................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Conducting focus groups .......................................................................................................................................................................... 89
8.3 Participant observation ....................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Conducting observational studies ............................................................................................................................................................ 90
Observer – participant relationship. ........................................................................................................................................................ 91
Conducting participant observation ......................................................................................................................................................... 91
Chapter 10 Content analysis and other qualitative approaches ............................................................................................................... 93
10.1 Content analysis ............................................................................................................................................................................ 93
Advantages and disadvantages ................................................................................................................................................................ 93
The process of content analysis ............................................................................................................................................................... 93
10.2 Narrative analysis .......................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Procedure in narrative analysis ................................................................................................................................................................ 94
10.3 ethnographic studies.............................................................................................................................................................................. 95
10.4 Action research .............................................................................................................................................................................. 95
10.5 Grounded theory ........................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Chapter 11 Case studies............................................................................................................................................................................. 97
11.1 Case study objectives .................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Case study objectives ............................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Single versus multiple case studies .......................................................................................................................................................... 97
11.2 The richness of multiple evidence sources ................................................................................................................................... 97
11.3 How to conduct good case study research .............................................................................................................................. 98
Chapter 18 Hypothesis testing ................................................................................................................................................................... 99
18.2 Hypothesis testing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Testing approaches................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Statistical significance............................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Hypothesis testing .................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Type I error ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 100
Type II error ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 100
18.3 Statistical testing procedures ...................................................................................................................................................... 101
Probability values (p values) ................................................................................................................................................................... 101
18.4 Tests of significance..................................................................................................................................................................... 101
Types of tests .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
How to select a test ................................................................................................................................................................................ 102
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, BRM Summary
One-sample tests .................................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 103
Chi-square test........................................................................................................................................................................................ 103
Two independent samples tests ............................................................................................................................................................. 103
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 103
Two related samples tests ...................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 104
K independent samples’ tests................................................................................................................................................................. 104
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Multiple comparison tests ...................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 104
k-related samples case ........................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Parametric tests...................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Non-parametric tests.............................................................................................................................................................................. 105
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