Lecture 1: What is science?
Characteristics of science
- Empirical
- Theoretical (herbruikbaar, beknopt)
- Cumulative (ophopend > add knowledge, not repeat)
- Value free (no words as ‘better/good’) → objective
- Unbiased (onpartijdig) → objective
Deduction: from theory to data
Induction: from data to theory
The empirical cycle:
Regulative cycle:
Problem → Diagnosis/cause → Plan X is conceived → Design
(supported/executable?) → Plan X is implemented → Monitoring (executed as it was
designed) → Evaluation (solved)
Are the following questions researchable?
-Will plan X solve problem Y?
Not researchable! Involves multiple phases of regulative cycle (RC), involves predictions
about future states.
-Did plan X solve problem Y?
Researchable! Provided that plan X was executed as designed and the problem was well-
defined, this is research in the evaluation phase of RC.
Quantitative: for example, nr. of people that get divorced within 5 years of marriage.
(general)
Qualitative: for example, why did Sarah and John get a divorce? (more specific)
Lecture 2: Variables
,Essential about a theory: It speaks of concept
Scientific research cycle:
Practice oriented research
● Research cannot solve
problems directly,
knowledge is produced
● Research can only
generate knowledge. The
knowledge may contribute
to the solution of a
practical problem. There
is a difference with
producing/consuming
knowledge.
Therefore, the research objective
should relate to the knowledge to
be generated as well as to the
practical problem solved
Research objective
● The research objective describes your motivation to do the research and the
knowledge you hope to acquire.
● Research questions relate exactly to the knowledge that you hope to acquire
● The objective of the research is to help solve problem (motivation statement) by
investigating/inventory/analysing/evaluating (knowledge statement)
‘The objective of this research project is to improve the economic position of small cocoa
farmers in Ghana by investigating what major problems these farmers face.’
How to arrive at specific research question(s)?
3 tools.
1. Conceptual/theoretical framework
Includes all theories on the topic of interest that are relevant to your research.
- Often research problems and general research questions contain theoretical
concepts.
- Literature about the theoretical concepts will give indications for the specific
research questions you could ask.
Step 1. Select key concepts in your research question
Step 2. Do a systematic analysis of existing literature covering the key concepts
Step 3. Identify the commonly used definitions of the key concepts
, Step 4. Formulate specific research questions
2. Path diagram
A path diagram: graphic representation of direct and indirect relationships of concepts, e.g.
X>Y. These diagrams can include direction of the relationship.
- Positive relationship (+): increasing values of X correspond to increasing values of Y
- Negative relationship (-): increasing values of X correspond to decreasing values of Y.
Step 1. Select key concepts in your research question
Step 2. Find the basic cause-effect relationship(s) and explain whether the relation is
positive or negative
Step 3. Find intermediate relationships
Step 4. Formulate specific research questions
3. Tree diagram
A tree diagram subdivides a concept in aspects or elements (not causes and effects!)
Step 1. Identify key concepts in general research question
Step 2. Split each concept into aspects/elements (not causes or effects)
Step 3. Select aspects/elements of interest
Step 4. Formulate specific research questions
Requirements
- Internally homogeneous (distinguishable)
- Mutually exclusive
- Exhaustive
- Objective/no values
Common mistakes in RQs:
· Overly ambitious
o Questions are too broad
o Questions involve the complete regulative cycle (you can only be in one
phase)
· Questions are not coherent/consistent
o General questions expand, reduce or are unrelated to the objective
o Specific questions are unrelated to the general ones
· Questions are not researchable
o Questions are not aimed at gaining knowledge but at changing reality
(How can we solve poverty?)
Characteristics of science
- Empirical
- Theoretical (herbruikbaar, beknopt)
- Cumulative (ophopend > add knowledge, not repeat)
- Value free (no words as ‘better/good’) → objective
- Unbiased (onpartijdig) → objective
Deduction: from theory to data
Induction: from data to theory
The empirical cycle:
Regulative cycle:
Problem → Diagnosis/cause → Plan X is conceived → Design
(supported/executable?) → Plan X is implemented → Monitoring (executed as it was
designed) → Evaluation (solved)
Are the following questions researchable?
-Will plan X solve problem Y?
Not researchable! Involves multiple phases of regulative cycle (RC), involves predictions
about future states.
-Did plan X solve problem Y?
Researchable! Provided that plan X was executed as designed and the problem was well-
defined, this is research in the evaluation phase of RC.
Quantitative: for example, nr. of people that get divorced within 5 years of marriage.
(general)
Qualitative: for example, why did Sarah and John get a divorce? (more specific)
Lecture 2: Variables
,Essential about a theory: It speaks of concept
Scientific research cycle:
Practice oriented research
● Research cannot solve
problems directly,
knowledge is produced
● Research can only
generate knowledge. The
knowledge may contribute
to the solution of a
practical problem. There
is a difference with
producing/consuming
knowledge.
Therefore, the research objective
should relate to the knowledge to
be generated as well as to the
practical problem solved
Research objective
● The research objective describes your motivation to do the research and the
knowledge you hope to acquire.
● Research questions relate exactly to the knowledge that you hope to acquire
● The objective of the research is to help solve problem (motivation statement) by
investigating/inventory/analysing/evaluating (knowledge statement)
‘The objective of this research project is to improve the economic position of small cocoa
farmers in Ghana by investigating what major problems these farmers face.’
How to arrive at specific research question(s)?
3 tools.
1. Conceptual/theoretical framework
Includes all theories on the topic of interest that are relevant to your research.
- Often research problems and general research questions contain theoretical
concepts.
- Literature about the theoretical concepts will give indications for the specific
research questions you could ask.
Step 1. Select key concepts in your research question
Step 2. Do a systematic analysis of existing literature covering the key concepts
Step 3. Identify the commonly used definitions of the key concepts
, Step 4. Formulate specific research questions
2. Path diagram
A path diagram: graphic representation of direct and indirect relationships of concepts, e.g.
X>Y. These diagrams can include direction of the relationship.
- Positive relationship (+): increasing values of X correspond to increasing values of Y
- Negative relationship (-): increasing values of X correspond to decreasing values of Y.
Step 1. Select key concepts in your research question
Step 2. Find the basic cause-effect relationship(s) and explain whether the relation is
positive or negative
Step 3. Find intermediate relationships
Step 4. Formulate specific research questions
3. Tree diagram
A tree diagram subdivides a concept in aspects or elements (not causes and effects!)
Step 1. Identify key concepts in general research question
Step 2. Split each concept into aspects/elements (not causes or effects)
Step 3. Select aspects/elements of interest
Step 4. Formulate specific research questions
Requirements
- Internally homogeneous (distinguishable)
- Mutually exclusive
- Exhaustive
- Objective/no values
Common mistakes in RQs:
· Overly ambitious
o Questions are too broad
o Questions involve the complete regulative cycle (you can only be in one
phase)
· Questions are not coherent/consistent
o General questions expand, reduce or are unrelated to the objective
o Specific questions are unrelated to the general ones
· Questions are not researchable
o Questions are not aimed at gaining knowledge but at changing reality
(How can we solve poverty?)
