The Restoration of Conservative Europe
2.1) Causes of/Explaining the French Revolution
“Despite its status as a political event, the French Revolution has been very heavily associated with
social explanations”
A. A Marxist interpretation (20th Century)
● Marxist interpretation:
o Class struggle between the Bourgeoisie and the Nobility.
o Industrial proletariat pushed the Bourgeoisie into more left-wing positions.
▪ Dialectic materialism: Constant conflict between the ones who have the means
of Production and those who haven’t
▪ Class consciousness as a catalyst of revolution: People understand the
differences between the rich/powerful and the poor/powerless. Once people
understand they have less than others, this will lead to tensions.
o Bourgeois dominance will lead to a dual conflict between the Bourgeois and the
Proletariat.
o The economy determines the social structure.
“the impossibility of explaining the Revolution by the triumph of an unidentifiable capitalist bourgeoisie
over an unidentifiable feudal aristocracy”
-Pierre Goubert, historian
● Many historians actually reject the Marxist interpretation.
Invalidated by historical evidence:
1) False distinction between ‘Feudal aristocracy’ and ‘Capitalist Bourgeoisie’
o Weakened Aristocracy
▪ Feudal system was already weakened.
▪ Loss of Privileges and sales of Noble-titles and lands.
o The Bourgeoisie and the Aristocrats weren’t that different (Have/Have not).
▪ The Aristocrat heavily invested in trade and proto-industry - not really separate
economic classes
▪ The Bourgeoisie weren’t from the poor parts of society; rentiers, traders,
land-owners, public officials, etc.
o Revolution slowed the industrialization processes
, 2) Bourgeois lack of class Consciousness
o Great variances across local cultures, not a generalized bourgeoisie - prevent from
forming a generalized/uniform class-consciousness
o Lack of mobilization, lack of uniformity (Class consciousness).
3) Bourgeoisie wasn’t in favor of a revolution - did not hold revolutionary aspirations (on
average)
o They aspired to become Nobility (and buy noble titles), not destroy them.
o Wished to preserve ‘rank and order’: maintenance of estates-system allowed them to
mark their social mobility / individual progress
B. The victory of the enlightenment ideas (1970s)
● François Furet ; penser la révolution Française ; 1978.
o Central argument = Fr. Revolution was less about social/class conflict and more a conflict
over the meaning and application of norms and ideas
o French revolution wasn’t really about the rise of the Bourgeoisie, but about the new
social contracts and form of organizations (governments).
o Popular sovereignty
▪ Language of ‘popular will’ presumes a uniformity.
▪ Impact of J-J Rousseau, (1762) Social Contract
● The general will as ‘one and invisible’.
● The general will can only be executed, not represented.
● Keith baker; Inventing the French Revolution; 1990.
o Late 18th C: Three compelling discourses.
▪ Justice: Constitution/social contract as a protection against state domination
and absolutist/arbitrary rule.
▪ Equality: Account giving by government (Challenging the Divine right to rule).
▪ Popular will: The people (not God) as the source of legitimate rule.
o Reign of Terror = led to the rise of the ‘Popular will’ ideal during the summer of 1789
▪ Revolutionaries wanted power for the popular man - executors of the “popular
will”
, ▪ Conflicting narratives could not be exposed, because they would undermine the
narrative. If there are dissenting voices, it destroys the image of a homogeneous,
popular will - exposes their fragility → had to be silenced
● Limitations of the Ideas of the Enlightenment ideas.
o Little scholarly consensus on any direct connection between the enlightenment Ideas
and the revolution.
o Ideas of enlightenment were made in a particular social environment. They weren’t
made in order to ‘make’ a revolution.
o Explanations highlight the autonomy of ideas; leaving out their social origins
o ‘New Wine in old Bottles’ (Arnold Toynbee): scepticism
▪ The revolutionaries changed the source of authority, legitimacy (God → People)
▪ BUT there were very few changes to the “estates-based” system and its
structures of oppression (only a slight readjustment/re-negotiation of the three
levels)
C. Linking social and ideational theories (late 1990s1)
● Focus on the interaction between political and social history.
o Rise of Mercantile class from the 16th C. onwards
▪ Changing economic relations and power.
▪ Rise of Upward social mobility.
o Spread of bourgeois beliefs - meritocracy
▪ Meritocracy ⬄ hereditary system.
▪ Reason ⬄ divine religion.
→ The spread of meritocratic ideals facilitated the uptake of Enlightenment Ideas such as
‘Popular sovereignty’.
2.2) A Conservative Backlash
Continental Europe after the French Revolution
● Regicide and replacement of the Monarchy by a Republic in France.
● Terror, prosecution, and bloodbaths bring political instability.
● Napoleonic Wars (1802-1815) leading to mass armies and casualties.
1
After the cold war and the societal changes that happened there, Historians used new ‘glasses’ to look back at the
French revolution and try to understand it.
2.1) Causes of/Explaining the French Revolution
“Despite its status as a political event, the French Revolution has been very heavily associated with
social explanations”
A. A Marxist interpretation (20th Century)
● Marxist interpretation:
o Class struggle between the Bourgeoisie and the Nobility.
o Industrial proletariat pushed the Bourgeoisie into more left-wing positions.
▪ Dialectic materialism: Constant conflict between the ones who have the means
of Production and those who haven’t
▪ Class consciousness as a catalyst of revolution: People understand the
differences between the rich/powerful and the poor/powerless. Once people
understand they have less than others, this will lead to tensions.
o Bourgeois dominance will lead to a dual conflict between the Bourgeois and the
Proletariat.
o The economy determines the social structure.
“the impossibility of explaining the Revolution by the triumph of an unidentifiable capitalist bourgeoisie
over an unidentifiable feudal aristocracy”
-Pierre Goubert, historian
● Many historians actually reject the Marxist interpretation.
Invalidated by historical evidence:
1) False distinction between ‘Feudal aristocracy’ and ‘Capitalist Bourgeoisie’
o Weakened Aristocracy
▪ Feudal system was already weakened.
▪ Loss of Privileges and sales of Noble-titles and lands.
o The Bourgeoisie and the Aristocrats weren’t that different (Have/Have not).
▪ The Aristocrat heavily invested in trade and proto-industry - not really separate
economic classes
▪ The Bourgeoisie weren’t from the poor parts of society; rentiers, traders,
land-owners, public officials, etc.
o Revolution slowed the industrialization processes
, 2) Bourgeois lack of class Consciousness
o Great variances across local cultures, not a generalized bourgeoisie - prevent from
forming a generalized/uniform class-consciousness
o Lack of mobilization, lack of uniformity (Class consciousness).
3) Bourgeoisie wasn’t in favor of a revolution - did not hold revolutionary aspirations (on
average)
o They aspired to become Nobility (and buy noble titles), not destroy them.
o Wished to preserve ‘rank and order’: maintenance of estates-system allowed them to
mark their social mobility / individual progress
B. The victory of the enlightenment ideas (1970s)
● François Furet ; penser la révolution Française ; 1978.
o Central argument = Fr. Revolution was less about social/class conflict and more a conflict
over the meaning and application of norms and ideas
o French revolution wasn’t really about the rise of the Bourgeoisie, but about the new
social contracts and form of organizations (governments).
o Popular sovereignty
▪ Language of ‘popular will’ presumes a uniformity.
▪ Impact of J-J Rousseau, (1762) Social Contract
● The general will as ‘one and invisible’.
● The general will can only be executed, not represented.
● Keith baker; Inventing the French Revolution; 1990.
o Late 18th C: Three compelling discourses.
▪ Justice: Constitution/social contract as a protection against state domination
and absolutist/arbitrary rule.
▪ Equality: Account giving by government (Challenging the Divine right to rule).
▪ Popular will: The people (not God) as the source of legitimate rule.
o Reign of Terror = led to the rise of the ‘Popular will’ ideal during the summer of 1789
▪ Revolutionaries wanted power for the popular man - executors of the “popular
will”
, ▪ Conflicting narratives could not be exposed, because they would undermine the
narrative. If there are dissenting voices, it destroys the image of a homogeneous,
popular will - exposes their fragility → had to be silenced
● Limitations of the Ideas of the Enlightenment ideas.
o Little scholarly consensus on any direct connection between the enlightenment Ideas
and the revolution.
o Ideas of enlightenment were made in a particular social environment. They weren’t
made in order to ‘make’ a revolution.
o Explanations highlight the autonomy of ideas; leaving out their social origins
o ‘New Wine in old Bottles’ (Arnold Toynbee): scepticism
▪ The revolutionaries changed the source of authority, legitimacy (God → People)
▪ BUT there were very few changes to the “estates-based” system and its
structures of oppression (only a slight readjustment/re-negotiation of the three
levels)
C. Linking social and ideational theories (late 1990s1)
● Focus on the interaction between political and social history.
o Rise of Mercantile class from the 16th C. onwards
▪ Changing economic relations and power.
▪ Rise of Upward social mobility.
o Spread of bourgeois beliefs - meritocracy
▪ Meritocracy ⬄ hereditary system.
▪ Reason ⬄ divine religion.
→ The spread of meritocratic ideals facilitated the uptake of Enlightenment Ideas such as
‘Popular sovereignty’.
2.2) A Conservative Backlash
Continental Europe after the French Revolution
● Regicide and replacement of the Monarchy by a Republic in France.
● Terror, prosecution, and bloodbaths bring political instability.
● Napoleonic Wars (1802-1815) leading to mass armies and casualties.
1
After the cold war and the societal changes that happened there, Historians used new ‘glasses’ to look back at the
French revolution and try to understand it.
