Motivation in Words: Promotion- and
Prevention-Oriented Leader Communication in
Times of Crisis
Daan Stam, Daan van Knippenberg, Barbara Wisse, Anne
Nederveen Pieterse (2018)
Previous research: Research demonstrates that situational uncertainty or crisis strongly
influences the endorsement of the more charismatic or decisive leadership styles and that
inspirational communication is at the heart of these styles.
It is not clear what leaders should communicate in order to be endorsed in difficult times. The
authors argue that the regulatory focus of leader communication, referred to as regulatory
orientation, is an important determinant of leadership endorsement during a crisis.
Studies on the role of regulatory focus in leadership:
● Focus on regulatory fit effects
● Persons whose regulatory focus is sustained by the environment will be experiencing a
situation of “feeling right” -> leads to being more persuaded, more motivated, more
engaged; their evaluations of the elements that sustain their regulatory focus intensify.
● Followers will perceive a leader as effective and motivating when the regulatory
orientation of the leader’s communication fits followers’ regulatory focus.
● Based on the above, it was speculated that:
○ Prevention-oriented communication leaders might be especially endorsed in
times of crisis -> negative affect and uncertainty associated with crisis induce a
prevention focus in followers and the communication of the leader sustain a
prevention focus.
■ But this research argues that it is the exact opposite: during crisis ->
promotion-oriented leaders (creating regulatory misfit), because:
● Prevention-oriented intensifies the uncertainty and negative
feelings, which leads to less motivation to realise the leader’s
plan, and less leader endorsement
● Regulatory misfit serves to disrupt the uncertainty and negative
feelings related to the crisis -> increase motivation to realise the
leader’s plans and lead to more leader endorsement
Leader endorsement and crisis
● Leader endorsement = the voluntary acceptance of and cooperation with a leader
● Leader endorsement -> precursor of leader effectiveness: without the acceptance and
cooperation of followers, leaders cannot hope to be effective and accomplish their
goals.
● Crisis = as an event that “is characterized by ambiguity of cause, effect, and means of
resolution, as well as by a belief that decisions must be made swiftly”
1
, ● Crisis -> strongly related to environmental uncertainty as well as to high risk and
turbulence
● Crisis -> often accompanied by distress, negative emotions, and feelings of uncertainty
○ If these feelings are not countered, one loses the feeling that they’re in control
of the environment and future
● This research considers crises as events that are associated with intense feelings of
negative affect regarding the current situation and strong feelings of uncertainty
regarding the future.
● Leaders who are perceived to be more charismatic are likely to be endorsed in times of
crisis and turmoil.
○ The most defining element of charisma = ability to communicate an inspiring
vision -> leader’s communication skills are particularly important in times of
crisis
○ Followers look for someone to guide them through hard times by
communicating clearly what needs to be done in order to reach a more positive
end state.
● No understanding is available of what leaders should actually communicate to be
endorsed in times of crisis.
Regulatory focus and leadership
● Two strategic inclinations for self-regulation play a key role in directing behaviour:
○ Promotion focus = tendency to aim for reaching an end-state because the
end-state is desired
■ Motivation: approach of pleasure
■ Eager to achieve, emphasize ideals, focus on advancement, and set
promotion goals.
○ Prevention focus = tendency to aim for reaching an end-state because of a fear
of an undesirable alternative
■ Motivation: avoidance of pain vigilant and careful, emphasize fears,
focus on avoiding threats, and set prevention goals.
● The regulatory focus has been associated with leadership:
○ Kark and Van Dijk (2007) argued that chronic regulatory focus shapes leaders’
motivation to lead and determines leaders’ styles in terms of transformational
leadership (in case of promotion) and transactional leadership (in case of
prevention).
■ transformational leadership encourages promotion strategies and is
related to creativity, speed, and positive affect
■ transactional leadership encourages prevention strategies and is related
to vigilance, accuracy, and negative affect
● Recent studies showed that leader communication can vary in its regulatory orientation
○ Promotion-oriented communication emphasizes ideals, focuses on growth and
achievement, and conveys positive affect
○ Prevention-oriented communication emphasizes responsibilities, focuses on
safety and vigilance, and conveys negative affect
2
Prevention-Oriented Leader Communication in
Times of Crisis
Daan Stam, Daan van Knippenberg, Barbara Wisse, Anne
Nederveen Pieterse (2018)
Previous research: Research demonstrates that situational uncertainty or crisis strongly
influences the endorsement of the more charismatic or decisive leadership styles and that
inspirational communication is at the heart of these styles.
It is not clear what leaders should communicate in order to be endorsed in difficult times. The
authors argue that the regulatory focus of leader communication, referred to as regulatory
orientation, is an important determinant of leadership endorsement during a crisis.
Studies on the role of regulatory focus in leadership:
● Focus on regulatory fit effects
● Persons whose regulatory focus is sustained by the environment will be experiencing a
situation of “feeling right” -> leads to being more persuaded, more motivated, more
engaged; their evaluations of the elements that sustain their regulatory focus intensify.
● Followers will perceive a leader as effective and motivating when the regulatory
orientation of the leader’s communication fits followers’ regulatory focus.
● Based on the above, it was speculated that:
○ Prevention-oriented communication leaders might be especially endorsed in
times of crisis -> negative affect and uncertainty associated with crisis induce a
prevention focus in followers and the communication of the leader sustain a
prevention focus.
■ But this research argues that it is the exact opposite: during crisis ->
promotion-oriented leaders (creating regulatory misfit), because:
● Prevention-oriented intensifies the uncertainty and negative
feelings, which leads to less motivation to realise the leader’s
plan, and less leader endorsement
● Regulatory misfit serves to disrupt the uncertainty and negative
feelings related to the crisis -> increase motivation to realise the
leader’s plans and lead to more leader endorsement
Leader endorsement and crisis
● Leader endorsement = the voluntary acceptance of and cooperation with a leader
● Leader endorsement -> precursor of leader effectiveness: without the acceptance and
cooperation of followers, leaders cannot hope to be effective and accomplish their
goals.
● Crisis = as an event that “is characterized by ambiguity of cause, effect, and means of
resolution, as well as by a belief that decisions must be made swiftly”
1
, ● Crisis -> strongly related to environmental uncertainty as well as to high risk and
turbulence
● Crisis -> often accompanied by distress, negative emotions, and feelings of uncertainty
○ If these feelings are not countered, one loses the feeling that they’re in control
of the environment and future
● This research considers crises as events that are associated with intense feelings of
negative affect regarding the current situation and strong feelings of uncertainty
regarding the future.
● Leaders who are perceived to be more charismatic are likely to be endorsed in times of
crisis and turmoil.
○ The most defining element of charisma = ability to communicate an inspiring
vision -> leader’s communication skills are particularly important in times of
crisis
○ Followers look for someone to guide them through hard times by
communicating clearly what needs to be done in order to reach a more positive
end state.
● No understanding is available of what leaders should actually communicate to be
endorsed in times of crisis.
Regulatory focus and leadership
● Two strategic inclinations for self-regulation play a key role in directing behaviour:
○ Promotion focus = tendency to aim for reaching an end-state because the
end-state is desired
■ Motivation: approach of pleasure
■ Eager to achieve, emphasize ideals, focus on advancement, and set
promotion goals.
○ Prevention focus = tendency to aim for reaching an end-state because of a fear
of an undesirable alternative
■ Motivation: avoidance of pain vigilant and careful, emphasize fears,
focus on avoiding threats, and set prevention goals.
● The regulatory focus has been associated with leadership:
○ Kark and Van Dijk (2007) argued that chronic regulatory focus shapes leaders’
motivation to lead and determines leaders’ styles in terms of transformational
leadership (in case of promotion) and transactional leadership (in case of
prevention).
■ transformational leadership encourages promotion strategies and is
related to creativity, speed, and positive affect
■ transactional leadership encourages prevention strategies and is related
to vigilance, accuracy, and negative affect
● Recent studies showed that leader communication can vary in its regulatory orientation
○ Promotion-oriented communication emphasizes ideals, focuses on growth and
achievement, and conveys positive affect
○ Prevention-oriented communication emphasizes responsibilities, focuses on
safety and vigilance, and conveys negative affect
2
