Summary: Introduction to Anthropology in a Decolonizing world
Professor Filip De Boeck & Professor Nadia Fadil
Class 1: General introduction
Anthropology
What is anthropology and where do you think of?
• Study of society: Understanding how • Study of everyday life
different groups of people live and interact • Study of what makes us human: Looking at
• Study of the human our unique qualities and behaviors
• The idea of difference • How humans socialize: Analyzing how we
• Different cultures: Learning about customs connect and communicate with one another
and traditions from around the world • …
• Study of the diversity and origin of mankind,
the study of non-Western customs and
cultures
➔ No shared research object
➔ What do anthropologist have in common?
Anthropology covers a lot of ground and doesn’t focus on just one thing. So, what do all
anthropologists share? They all study humans, but they do it in different ways.
• When does it start? ; When start humans reflecting about their own existence?
o Herodotus; 430 BC: Ancient Greek historian & One of the founding fathers
▪ Wrote about the Persian Wars & Histories
o Lascaux Paleolithic paintings; 17.000 BC
When Did Humans Start Reflecting on Themselves?
One of the earliest thinkers was Herodotus, a Greek historian from around 30 BC. He is known for
writing about human history and societies. Even older examples of human reflection can be found in
the Lascaux cave paintings, which date back about 17,000 years.
• As an academic discipline, it starts much later
o ‘Early History of Mankind, and the development of civilization’, by Edward B. Taylor
o ‘The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings’, by Sir James George Fraser
While people have been thinking about their existence for a long time, anthropology as a formal
academic field began later. Some early influential works include:
• "Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization" by Edward B. Taylor.
• "The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings" by Sir James George Fraser.
These authors helped shape the study of how societies evolve and what rituals people practice.
Dia 7: Different Cultures ➔ Studying non-Western cultures by Western ‘anthropologists’
Dia 8: This is just an idea ➔ The very exotic idea of anthropology; Is also kind of critique that
anthropology has adopted about itself
Historically, many Western anthropologists (scholars from Europe or North America) focused on
studying non-Western cultures, which means they traveled to learn about people with different
ways of life. In the past, anthropology often viewed non-Western societies as ‘exotic’, seeing them as
very different from Western cultures. Over time, anthropologists began to critique their own field.
They recognized that these exotic views could be unfair and began to focus on more respectful ways
of studying other cultures. Today, there is a movement to decolonize anthropology, means moving
away from biased views of the past and approaching cultures with fairness, respect, understanding.
Ethnography
• The practice of ‘fieldwork’: Who live in different environments, who go to the field; You try to
emerge yourselve to the everyday life of the group you study…
• The study of everyday life
1
,• Participant observation as its hallmark (= kenmerk)
Ingold: Reductivist account of what the discipline stands for by narrowing it down to
documentary aspects
- Ingold, 2014: ‘I want to insist, rather, on anthropology as a practice of education’
o It is a way of learning from your interlocuters (= gesprekspartners)
o We don’t just work on people, but we study with people, and learn from the
people we work with
Ethnography is primarily about fieldwork. This means that anthropologists engage themselves in
different environments to study groups of people. They engage in the everyday lives of the individuals
they are researching, which allows them to gain a deeper understanding of those communities. The
focus of ethnography is on studying everyday life and observing what people do in their normal
routines. A key method used in ethnography is called participant observation. This approach involves
actively engaging with the people being studied while also observing their behaviors and
interactions. Anthropologist Tim Ingold emphasizes that reducing anthropology to mere
documentation limits its true essence. He argues that anthropology should be viewed as a form of
education and learning. This perspective highlights the importance of learning from the people being
studied and working alongside them, rather than simply observing from a distance.
What is anthropology
• Different answers, different perspectives
o Every answer covers one part of the story
o Is also one of the anthropology’s sensitivities
• A shared commitment to studying the potentiality of human life
• A critical awareness on the historical and cultural specificity of everyday practices and
events
• A shared commitment to your research interlocutors (= gesprekspartners)
o Feeling things/Experiencing things until you understand them
o Field work is not a 9 to 5 job, but you need to really follow the people you are
observing, and leave your everyday habits aside for some period of time
• An embodied construction of knowledge
Anthropology can be defined in many ways, and each definition provides a piece of the overall
picture. One of the most significant aspects of anthropology is its commitment to understanding
human life in all its forms. Anthropologists strive to be critically aware of the historical and cultural
contexts surrounding the everyday actions and events they study. A vital part of anthropology
involves developing a shared commitment to the people being studied, known as interlocutors. This
commitment requires anthropologists to deeply experience and understand the lives of their
subjects. Fieldwork is not just a traditional job with set hours; it requires researchers to follow the
people closely and sometimes set aside their own daily habits for an extended period. Knowledge in
anthropology is seen as an embodied experience, which means it is gained through lived
experiences and interactions with others.
Anthropology’s double movement
• Critically opening up and exploring the possibilities of the human condition (➔ What does it
mean to be human?)
o Knowing that things are constantly changing
• Recording the everyday lives and practices of our interlocutors (= gesprekspartners)
• Making lives ‘legible’ (= leesbaar)
➔ Recording realities is a contradictory movement of opening and closing. Inherent paradox
and contradiction
o Accounting/Auditing for patterns/structure and complexity
o Experiencing realities in their complexity and writing about them imperfectly (See
also: Other media than writing, audio, video, performance etc.)
2
, Anthropology doesn’t (only) study ‘what’ but ‘how’ (For example: How is ‘gender’ performed,
how is ‘poverty’ lived and experienced, how is ‘religion’ practiced)
o Anthropology doesn’t like the sentence: ‘This is the truth…’ Anthropology is
(almost) the opposite of it!
Anthropology aims to explore what it means to be human, recognizing that human experiences are
always evolving. It involves recording the everyday lives and practices of the people studied and
making those lives understandable, or ‘legible’. This process of recording is complex and often
contradictory. It includes looking for patterns and structures in people's lives while also
acknowledging the intricate reality of their experiences. Anthropologists strive to capture these
realities through various media, including writing, audio, video, and performance. Furthermore,
anthropology focuses not only on what happens but also on how things occur. For instance,
anthropologists might investigate how gender is expressed, how poverty is experienced, and how
religion is practiced. This discipline challenges the idea of absolute truths and often rejects
statements like "This is the truth." Instead, anthropology embraces complexity and recognizes that
there are multiple perspectives to consider.
Anthropology as a practiced relationship between self and other; As an exercise in
understanding and translation: EMIC VS ETIC
➔ Anthropology is about the relationship between people; Specifically, how we understand
ourselves and others. It involves two main perspectives: Emic and etic
EMIC ETIC
An emic view of culture is ultimately a perspective An etic view of a culture is the perspective of an outsider
focus on the intrinsic cultural distinctions that are looking in. For example, if an American anthropologist
meaningful to the members of a given society, often went to Africa to study a nomadic tribe, his/her resulting
considered to be an ‘insider’s’ perspective. While this case study would be from an etic standpoint if he/she did
perspective stems from the concept of immersion in a not integrate themselves into the culture they were
specific culture, the emic participant isn’t always a observing. Some anthropologists took this approach to
member of that culture or society. Studies done from an avoid altering the culture that they were studying by direct
emic perspective often include more detailed and interaction. The etic perspective is data gathering
culturally rich information than studies done from an by outsiders that yield questions posed by outsiders.
etic point of view. Because the observer places
themselves within the culture of intended study, they
are able to go further in-depth on the details of practices
and beliefs of a society that may otherwise have been
ignored.
• Letting go of yourself, and that is not always • Without reaching out ‘into the flesh’
comfortable
• Try to reach a context on its own terms
The emic view focuses on understanding a culture from In contrast, the etic view comes from the outside. This is
the inside. It’s about seeing things the way the people when an anthropologist looks at a culture without becoming
within that culture see them. This perspective can provide part of it. For example, if an American anthropologist studies
rich and detailed information about their beliefs and a nomadic tribe in Africa but doesn’t integrate into their daily
practices because it considers what is meaningful to the life, they are using an etic perspective. This approach allows
people themselves. However, the person studying the the researcher to observe without directly influencing the
culture (the anthropologist) doesn’t always have to be a culture. However, it may not capture the full depth of the
member of that culture. To adopt an emic perspective, an culture's meanings since it is based on an outsider's
anthropologist needs to let go of their own views, which questions and observations.
can be uncomfortable. They aim to understand the culture
on its own terms, allowing for a deeper exploration of its
values and practices.
3
,But anthropology as academic discipline does not exist in a political or societal void (= leegte)
o We will therefore not only focus on anthropology as a specific way of knowing about
Anthropos, the way in which we, as human beings, form a ‘living together’, and
inhabit our social worlds
o We will also pay particular attention to the ways in which this knowledge is never
innocent but was/ is constructed in the historical contexts of colonialism, for
example: Contexts that are deeply rooted in hegemonic relations of power
o To understand the birth and evolution of anthropology as an academic discipline, we
will therefore also contextualize and scrutinize the knowledge it generates through
the critical theoretical perspective of post-colonial theory and reflections on the
need for decolonial vocabularies.
➔ Very broad is anthropology about a living together; In its 150 years it went through a massive
evolution
19th century: ‘Heart of Darkness’, by Joseph Conrad (= Polish author)
- People were colonized
- Nation states emerged
Anthropology does not exist in a vacuum; It is influenced by political and social factors. As a field, it
examines how people live together in societies. However, the knowledge produced by anthropology
is shaped by historical contexts, including colonialism, where certain groups held power over others.
To fully understand how anthropology has evolved as an academic discipline, we must consider
these power dynamics and use frameworks like post-colonial theory. This theory helps us reflect on
how the knowledge created by anthropology has been influenced by its historical roots.
In the 19th century, Joseph Conrad’s novella ‘Heart of Darkness’, critiques European imperialism
and explores the psychological effects of colonialism on both colonizers and the colonized. This
context illustrates that anthropology has undergone significant changes over the past 150 years,
evolving as it responds to the complexities of human societies and increasingly emphasizing cultural
relativism and reflexivity in understanding different cultures.
Postcoloniality
- Postcolonial time can be seen as a kind of in between space: So, it refers to the past
- At the end of colonialism, they had to look forward, but looking back also became
difficult
- Postcolonial moment is the moment of a world that is in between
the past and the future; In a present that is characterized by that in
betweenness
- Neither here, nor there
Postcoloniality refers to the period after colonialism, which is often viewed
as a space that exists ‘in between’. This means that countries that were
once colonies must look forward to a new future while also struggling to let
go of their colonial past. As a result, people in these societies often feel
stuck between what they once were and what they are becoming.
- ‘The Location of Culture’ = Groundbreaking book: Where is
culture located? What is that in betweenness space about? ➔
For Bhabha: A space of cultural creativity
- Mudimbe: ‘The invention of Africa’ < How was Africa invented by
the West?
o European imagination of how they saw Africa
4
, - Space of marginalization: Stuck between the impossibility to
return to the past or to move forward; You are there and the
space of colonization = A space of marginalization
A key concept in postcoloniality is cultural location. Bhabha's book,
‘The Location of Culture’, asks where culture is truly found and what
it means to exist in this ‘in between’ space. Bhabha sees this area as
one filled with cultural creativity. Mudimbe also contributes to this
conversation by discussing how Africa was ‘invented’ by European
perspectives, showing how external views have shaped the continent's identity. After
colonialism, many individuals feel they cannot return to their past nor fully move forward,
placing them in a marginal space shaped by their colonial experiences.
- The in between space or the Third space (Bhabha) is a space of
potentiality, a space of creativity, of mixture, where many
different things meet and come together, and out of that
mingling new cultures, vocabularies emerge; Characterized by
words as hybridity
- The mixed culture is long seen as something bad
o For example: Mixed children = Danger to the colonial
order
o Post-colonial world: They aren’t seen as a threat
anymore, but as a positive thing ➔ The ‘hybrid’
- Palimpsest: Metaphor of re-using something from the past;
Originally, a palimpsest referred to a manuscript or piece of
writing material (like parchment) that had been scraped clean
or erased to be reused for new writing, but where traces of the original writing were still
visible. In a broader, metaphorical sense, it refers to something that has been reused or
altered while still retaining traces of its earlier form.
Bhabha introduces the idea of the Third Space, describing it as a creative space where various
cultures mix and give rise to new ideas and identities. This blending is referred to as hybridity.
Historically, mixed cultures were often viewed negatively, with mixed-race children seen as a threat
to the colonial order. However, in the postcolonial world, mixed identities are increasingly
recognized as positive contributions to cultural diversity. In the postcolonial context, creolization is
the blending of different cultures, languages, and identities that occurs when diverse groups
interact, especially after colonialism. It results in new, hybrid cultures and can serve as a form of
resistance, reflecting the dynamic nature of identity in multicultural societies. Another important
metaphor in this discussion is the palimpsest. Originally, a palimpsest is a manuscript that has been
reused, but still shows signs of its earlier writing. This concept symbolizes how postcolonial cultures
reuse and transform their past while retaining elements of it.
Postcolonial theory
• ‘Post’ in postcolonial: A break with the past (➔ Post as something subsequent/following,
clearly distinct from the colonial past)?
o See also: The decolonization movement, inspired in part by the work of Argentinian
thinker Walter Mignolo
• Or ‘Post’ as continuity, as a period grown out of a reworking of the past in the present,
something that incorporates the previous moments?
• Postcoloniality-decoloniality: A tense relationship?
In postcolonial theory, the term ‘post’ can have 2 meanings. It may indicate a break from the colonial
past, suggesting a new beginning after colonial rule, like the decolonization movements inspired by
thinkers like Walter Mignolo. Alternatively, ‘post’ can signify continuity, where current cultures still
incorporate aspects of their colonial history. This creates a complex and often tense relationship
between postcoloniality and decoloniality.
5
,Decolonization
• Historical moment: Starts around the 40s and culminates around the 60s of the 20th century,
and still is moving forward
• Political movement: Strive for decolonization
• Epistemological movement (decolonizing the mind): Not just about structures, economies
and governments, but it is also a way of relating to the world, and the way we see the world
(decolonization of the mind)
➔ Critically challenging the hegemony/dominance of ‘the West’ and/or ‘modernity’ as main
horizon of possibility
➔ Exploring alternative trajectories and complex engagements with modernity (also within the
West)
➔ Opening up the horizon of possibilities of what it means to be human (➔ Pluriverse = Plurality
of realities; Diverse world)
Decolonization is a process that began in 1940s and continued into 1960s, and it remains relevant
today. It is a political movement aimed at gaining independence from colonial powers & establishing
self-determination for colonized nations. However, decolonization goes beyond just political and
economic changes; iI also involves changing how we think and view the world. This concept, known
as ‘decolonizing the mind’, challenges the dominance of Western ways of thinking and encourages
the exploration of diverse perspectives and ways of being. This idea is often referred to as a
‘pluriverse’, emphasizing the existence of multiple valid realities.
Anthropology in a decolonizing world
• Decolonization as an ethnographic moment (➔ Studying decoloniality)
• How does the movement of decolonization reshape anthropology?
➔ What to study? In what language? Representational authority? Reciprocity? Etc.
• How does anthropology participate in enlarging the possibilities of being human?
In the field of anthropology, which studies cultures and societies, decolonization significantly
impacts how research is performed. Anthropologists are now re-evaluating what topics to study, the
languages they use, and who has the authority to represent different cultures. They are also
considering how their work can expand the understanding of what it means to be human. Overall,
decolonization is essential not only for political and economic liberation but also for enriching our
understanding of humanity and culture.
Practical aspects & Course calendar
Course description: In this course, we will study the different ways in which anthropological
discourse and ethnographic practice have evolved since the inception of anthropology as an
academic discipline. We take the call and the moment of decoloniality as a vantage point to
reflect on how colonialism has historically shaped the discipline, and how anthropology can, at
the same time, be a means to untangle and tackle this legacy. Decoloniality is here understood
both as an ethical and a political horizon, as a praxis, as a socio-historical moment, and as an
epistemological tradition. The first part of this course will trace the historical trajectories of
anthropological thought from the second half of the nineteenth century to the 1980s. The
second part addresses critical engagements with anthropology’s colonial legacy, which have
led to a decolonial ethos that continues to reshape and restructure anthropological thought and
practice as a self-reflexive discipline. The third part carries these insights back into the field by
addressing the ethnographic realities of négritude (a 1930s movement led by Black intellectuals
like Aimé Césaire that celebrated Black identity and African heritage, rejecting colonialism and
European cultural dominance), migration, gender, etc., which exemplify the strength of
anthropology’s self-reflexive approach.
6
,➔ How anthropology has changed since it started. We’ll explore how colonialism affected the field
and how anthropology can help address its past. The course has 3 parts:
1) The first covers the development of anthropological ideas from the late 19th century to the
1980s
2) The second focuses on responses to colonialism that encourage a decolonial approach
3) The third examines current topics like négritude, migration, and gender to show how
anthropology reflects on its own practices
Course material: Reader & Slides ➔ The reader contains a selection of 21 texts
Exam: Written exam, 3 open-ended questions + define a set of keywords, closed book ➔ You
can answer in Dutch, if you don’t know the answers in English!
- They don’t correct spelling mistakes, so it is no disaster if you make them ☺
7
, Text 1: Thomas Hylland Eriksen (2001), Chapter 2 (A Brief History of Anthropology) from
Small Places, Large Issues. An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology.
Proto-Anthropology: Anthropology is a relatively new field of study, but people have been thinking
about cultural differences for a long time. The ancient Greeks, including the historian Herodotus,
wrote about the cultures of different people. Later, Enlightenment thinkers like Montesquieu
compared aspects of different societies, like France and Persia.
Victorian Anthropology (19th Century): 19th century anthropology was influenced by the idea of social
evolution. Anthropologists believed that societies developed in stages from ‘savagery’ to
‘civilization’, with European societies at the top. Lewis Henry Morgan and Edward Tylor, important
anthropologists of this era, believed that cultures developed along a single path, with Western
culture being the most advanced. They relied on writings by missionaries and travelers for their
information, rather than their own fieldwork.
Early 20th Century Anthropology: In the early 1900s anthropology shifted away from the idea of social
evolution toward cultural relativism ➔ The idea that each culture must be understood on its own
terms. Franz Boas, a prominent American anthropologist, argued strongly for cultural relativism and
the importance of fieldwork. He challenged racist ideas that were common at the time. In Britain,
Bronislaw Malinowski and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown established fieldwork as a central method in
anthropology. Malinowski emphasized understanding the function of social practices within a
society & Radcliffe-Brown focused on how social structures maintain order and stability. In France,
Marcel Mauss, drawing on historical sources, studied topics such as gift exchanges, magic, and the
concept of the person.
Mid-20th Century Anthropology: After World War II, anthropology expanded, with more
anthropologists studying a greater variety of places. There were growing critiques of the idea that
societies were static and functioned like organisms. Anthropologists like Edmund Leach and
Raymond Firth argued that social life is dynamic and influenced by individual choices. Max
Gluckman and his students in Manchester developed the study of social conflict and change.
Late 20th Century Anthropology: Anthropologists questioned the objectivity of ethnographic
research. Clifford Geertz argued that anthropologists should focus on interpreting the meanings that
people give to their actions, rather than simply describing their behavior. Anthropologists began
studying a wider range of topics in modern and industrialized societies, including their ‘home’
societies. There was a renewed interest in Marxist ideas about power and inequality and a new focus
on the effects of colonialism.
Key Concepts
- Social Evolution: The idea that societies progress through stages, from simple to complex.
- Cultural Relativism: Understanding and evaluating cultures based on their own terms and
values, rather than judging them by the standards of another culture.
- Fieldwork: The method of living with a group of people for an extended period to learn about
their culture.
- Functionalism: The idea that cultural practices and institutions serve specific functions
within a society.
- Structuralism: The idea that there are underlying structures of thought that are common to
all humans.
8
Professor Filip De Boeck & Professor Nadia Fadil
Class 1: General introduction
Anthropology
What is anthropology and where do you think of?
• Study of society: Understanding how • Study of everyday life
different groups of people live and interact • Study of what makes us human: Looking at
• Study of the human our unique qualities and behaviors
• The idea of difference • How humans socialize: Analyzing how we
• Different cultures: Learning about customs connect and communicate with one another
and traditions from around the world • …
• Study of the diversity and origin of mankind,
the study of non-Western customs and
cultures
➔ No shared research object
➔ What do anthropologist have in common?
Anthropology covers a lot of ground and doesn’t focus on just one thing. So, what do all
anthropologists share? They all study humans, but they do it in different ways.
• When does it start? ; When start humans reflecting about their own existence?
o Herodotus; 430 BC: Ancient Greek historian & One of the founding fathers
▪ Wrote about the Persian Wars & Histories
o Lascaux Paleolithic paintings; 17.000 BC
When Did Humans Start Reflecting on Themselves?
One of the earliest thinkers was Herodotus, a Greek historian from around 30 BC. He is known for
writing about human history and societies. Even older examples of human reflection can be found in
the Lascaux cave paintings, which date back about 17,000 years.
• As an academic discipline, it starts much later
o ‘Early History of Mankind, and the development of civilization’, by Edward B. Taylor
o ‘The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings’, by Sir James George Fraser
While people have been thinking about their existence for a long time, anthropology as a formal
academic field began later. Some early influential works include:
• "Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization" by Edward B. Taylor.
• "The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings" by Sir James George Fraser.
These authors helped shape the study of how societies evolve and what rituals people practice.
Dia 7: Different Cultures ➔ Studying non-Western cultures by Western ‘anthropologists’
Dia 8: This is just an idea ➔ The very exotic idea of anthropology; Is also kind of critique that
anthropology has adopted about itself
Historically, many Western anthropologists (scholars from Europe or North America) focused on
studying non-Western cultures, which means they traveled to learn about people with different
ways of life. In the past, anthropology often viewed non-Western societies as ‘exotic’, seeing them as
very different from Western cultures. Over time, anthropologists began to critique their own field.
They recognized that these exotic views could be unfair and began to focus on more respectful ways
of studying other cultures. Today, there is a movement to decolonize anthropology, means moving
away from biased views of the past and approaching cultures with fairness, respect, understanding.
Ethnography
• The practice of ‘fieldwork’: Who live in different environments, who go to the field; You try to
emerge yourselve to the everyday life of the group you study…
• The study of everyday life
1
,• Participant observation as its hallmark (= kenmerk)
Ingold: Reductivist account of what the discipline stands for by narrowing it down to
documentary aspects
- Ingold, 2014: ‘I want to insist, rather, on anthropology as a practice of education’
o It is a way of learning from your interlocuters (= gesprekspartners)
o We don’t just work on people, but we study with people, and learn from the
people we work with
Ethnography is primarily about fieldwork. This means that anthropologists engage themselves in
different environments to study groups of people. They engage in the everyday lives of the individuals
they are researching, which allows them to gain a deeper understanding of those communities. The
focus of ethnography is on studying everyday life and observing what people do in their normal
routines. A key method used in ethnography is called participant observation. This approach involves
actively engaging with the people being studied while also observing their behaviors and
interactions. Anthropologist Tim Ingold emphasizes that reducing anthropology to mere
documentation limits its true essence. He argues that anthropology should be viewed as a form of
education and learning. This perspective highlights the importance of learning from the people being
studied and working alongside them, rather than simply observing from a distance.
What is anthropology
• Different answers, different perspectives
o Every answer covers one part of the story
o Is also one of the anthropology’s sensitivities
• A shared commitment to studying the potentiality of human life
• A critical awareness on the historical and cultural specificity of everyday practices and
events
• A shared commitment to your research interlocutors (= gesprekspartners)
o Feeling things/Experiencing things until you understand them
o Field work is not a 9 to 5 job, but you need to really follow the people you are
observing, and leave your everyday habits aside for some period of time
• An embodied construction of knowledge
Anthropology can be defined in many ways, and each definition provides a piece of the overall
picture. One of the most significant aspects of anthropology is its commitment to understanding
human life in all its forms. Anthropologists strive to be critically aware of the historical and cultural
contexts surrounding the everyday actions and events they study. A vital part of anthropology
involves developing a shared commitment to the people being studied, known as interlocutors. This
commitment requires anthropologists to deeply experience and understand the lives of their
subjects. Fieldwork is not just a traditional job with set hours; it requires researchers to follow the
people closely and sometimes set aside their own daily habits for an extended period. Knowledge in
anthropology is seen as an embodied experience, which means it is gained through lived
experiences and interactions with others.
Anthropology’s double movement
• Critically opening up and exploring the possibilities of the human condition (➔ What does it
mean to be human?)
o Knowing that things are constantly changing
• Recording the everyday lives and practices of our interlocutors (= gesprekspartners)
• Making lives ‘legible’ (= leesbaar)
➔ Recording realities is a contradictory movement of opening and closing. Inherent paradox
and contradiction
o Accounting/Auditing for patterns/structure and complexity
o Experiencing realities in their complexity and writing about them imperfectly (See
also: Other media than writing, audio, video, performance etc.)
2
, Anthropology doesn’t (only) study ‘what’ but ‘how’ (For example: How is ‘gender’ performed,
how is ‘poverty’ lived and experienced, how is ‘religion’ practiced)
o Anthropology doesn’t like the sentence: ‘This is the truth…’ Anthropology is
(almost) the opposite of it!
Anthropology aims to explore what it means to be human, recognizing that human experiences are
always evolving. It involves recording the everyday lives and practices of the people studied and
making those lives understandable, or ‘legible’. This process of recording is complex and often
contradictory. It includes looking for patterns and structures in people's lives while also
acknowledging the intricate reality of their experiences. Anthropologists strive to capture these
realities through various media, including writing, audio, video, and performance. Furthermore,
anthropology focuses not only on what happens but also on how things occur. For instance,
anthropologists might investigate how gender is expressed, how poverty is experienced, and how
religion is practiced. This discipline challenges the idea of absolute truths and often rejects
statements like "This is the truth." Instead, anthropology embraces complexity and recognizes that
there are multiple perspectives to consider.
Anthropology as a practiced relationship between self and other; As an exercise in
understanding and translation: EMIC VS ETIC
➔ Anthropology is about the relationship between people; Specifically, how we understand
ourselves and others. It involves two main perspectives: Emic and etic
EMIC ETIC
An emic view of culture is ultimately a perspective An etic view of a culture is the perspective of an outsider
focus on the intrinsic cultural distinctions that are looking in. For example, if an American anthropologist
meaningful to the members of a given society, often went to Africa to study a nomadic tribe, his/her resulting
considered to be an ‘insider’s’ perspective. While this case study would be from an etic standpoint if he/she did
perspective stems from the concept of immersion in a not integrate themselves into the culture they were
specific culture, the emic participant isn’t always a observing. Some anthropologists took this approach to
member of that culture or society. Studies done from an avoid altering the culture that they were studying by direct
emic perspective often include more detailed and interaction. The etic perspective is data gathering
culturally rich information than studies done from an by outsiders that yield questions posed by outsiders.
etic point of view. Because the observer places
themselves within the culture of intended study, they
are able to go further in-depth on the details of practices
and beliefs of a society that may otherwise have been
ignored.
• Letting go of yourself, and that is not always • Without reaching out ‘into the flesh’
comfortable
• Try to reach a context on its own terms
The emic view focuses on understanding a culture from In contrast, the etic view comes from the outside. This is
the inside. It’s about seeing things the way the people when an anthropologist looks at a culture without becoming
within that culture see them. This perspective can provide part of it. For example, if an American anthropologist studies
rich and detailed information about their beliefs and a nomadic tribe in Africa but doesn’t integrate into their daily
practices because it considers what is meaningful to the life, they are using an etic perspective. This approach allows
people themselves. However, the person studying the the researcher to observe without directly influencing the
culture (the anthropologist) doesn’t always have to be a culture. However, it may not capture the full depth of the
member of that culture. To adopt an emic perspective, an culture's meanings since it is based on an outsider's
anthropologist needs to let go of their own views, which questions and observations.
can be uncomfortable. They aim to understand the culture
on its own terms, allowing for a deeper exploration of its
values and practices.
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,But anthropology as academic discipline does not exist in a political or societal void (= leegte)
o We will therefore not only focus on anthropology as a specific way of knowing about
Anthropos, the way in which we, as human beings, form a ‘living together’, and
inhabit our social worlds
o We will also pay particular attention to the ways in which this knowledge is never
innocent but was/ is constructed in the historical contexts of colonialism, for
example: Contexts that are deeply rooted in hegemonic relations of power
o To understand the birth and evolution of anthropology as an academic discipline, we
will therefore also contextualize and scrutinize the knowledge it generates through
the critical theoretical perspective of post-colonial theory and reflections on the
need for decolonial vocabularies.
➔ Very broad is anthropology about a living together; In its 150 years it went through a massive
evolution
19th century: ‘Heart of Darkness’, by Joseph Conrad (= Polish author)
- People were colonized
- Nation states emerged
Anthropology does not exist in a vacuum; It is influenced by political and social factors. As a field, it
examines how people live together in societies. However, the knowledge produced by anthropology
is shaped by historical contexts, including colonialism, where certain groups held power over others.
To fully understand how anthropology has evolved as an academic discipline, we must consider
these power dynamics and use frameworks like post-colonial theory. This theory helps us reflect on
how the knowledge created by anthropology has been influenced by its historical roots.
In the 19th century, Joseph Conrad’s novella ‘Heart of Darkness’, critiques European imperialism
and explores the psychological effects of colonialism on both colonizers and the colonized. This
context illustrates that anthropology has undergone significant changes over the past 150 years,
evolving as it responds to the complexities of human societies and increasingly emphasizing cultural
relativism and reflexivity in understanding different cultures.
Postcoloniality
- Postcolonial time can be seen as a kind of in between space: So, it refers to the past
- At the end of colonialism, they had to look forward, but looking back also became
difficult
- Postcolonial moment is the moment of a world that is in between
the past and the future; In a present that is characterized by that in
betweenness
- Neither here, nor there
Postcoloniality refers to the period after colonialism, which is often viewed
as a space that exists ‘in between’. This means that countries that were
once colonies must look forward to a new future while also struggling to let
go of their colonial past. As a result, people in these societies often feel
stuck between what they once were and what they are becoming.
- ‘The Location of Culture’ = Groundbreaking book: Where is
culture located? What is that in betweenness space about? ➔
For Bhabha: A space of cultural creativity
- Mudimbe: ‘The invention of Africa’ < How was Africa invented by
the West?
o European imagination of how they saw Africa
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, - Space of marginalization: Stuck between the impossibility to
return to the past or to move forward; You are there and the
space of colonization = A space of marginalization
A key concept in postcoloniality is cultural location. Bhabha's book,
‘The Location of Culture’, asks where culture is truly found and what
it means to exist in this ‘in between’ space. Bhabha sees this area as
one filled with cultural creativity. Mudimbe also contributes to this
conversation by discussing how Africa was ‘invented’ by European
perspectives, showing how external views have shaped the continent's identity. After
colonialism, many individuals feel they cannot return to their past nor fully move forward,
placing them in a marginal space shaped by their colonial experiences.
- The in between space or the Third space (Bhabha) is a space of
potentiality, a space of creativity, of mixture, where many
different things meet and come together, and out of that
mingling new cultures, vocabularies emerge; Characterized by
words as hybridity
- The mixed culture is long seen as something bad
o For example: Mixed children = Danger to the colonial
order
o Post-colonial world: They aren’t seen as a threat
anymore, but as a positive thing ➔ The ‘hybrid’
- Palimpsest: Metaphor of re-using something from the past;
Originally, a palimpsest referred to a manuscript or piece of
writing material (like parchment) that had been scraped clean
or erased to be reused for new writing, but where traces of the original writing were still
visible. In a broader, metaphorical sense, it refers to something that has been reused or
altered while still retaining traces of its earlier form.
Bhabha introduces the idea of the Third Space, describing it as a creative space where various
cultures mix and give rise to new ideas and identities. This blending is referred to as hybridity.
Historically, mixed cultures were often viewed negatively, with mixed-race children seen as a threat
to the colonial order. However, in the postcolonial world, mixed identities are increasingly
recognized as positive contributions to cultural diversity. In the postcolonial context, creolization is
the blending of different cultures, languages, and identities that occurs when diverse groups
interact, especially after colonialism. It results in new, hybrid cultures and can serve as a form of
resistance, reflecting the dynamic nature of identity in multicultural societies. Another important
metaphor in this discussion is the palimpsest. Originally, a palimpsest is a manuscript that has been
reused, but still shows signs of its earlier writing. This concept symbolizes how postcolonial cultures
reuse and transform their past while retaining elements of it.
Postcolonial theory
• ‘Post’ in postcolonial: A break with the past (➔ Post as something subsequent/following,
clearly distinct from the colonial past)?
o See also: The decolonization movement, inspired in part by the work of Argentinian
thinker Walter Mignolo
• Or ‘Post’ as continuity, as a period grown out of a reworking of the past in the present,
something that incorporates the previous moments?
• Postcoloniality-decoloniality: A tense relationship?
In postcolonial theory, the term ‘post’ can have 2 meanings. It may indicate a break from the colonial
past, suggesting a new beginning after colonial rule, like the decolonization movements inspired by
thinkers like Walter Mignolo. Alternatively, ‘post’ can signify continuity, where current cultures still
incorporate aspects of their colonial history. This creates a complex and often tense relationship
between postcoloniality and decoloniality.
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,Decolonization
• Historical moment: Starts around the 40s and culminates around the 60s of the 20th century,
and still is moving forward
• Political movement: Strive for decolonization
• Epistemological movement (decolonizing the mind): Not just about structures, economies
and governments, but it is also a way of relating to the world, and the way we see the world
(decolonization of the mind)
➔ Critically challenging the hegemony/dominance of ‘the West’ and/or ‘modernity’ as main
horizon of possibility
➔ Exploring alternative trajectories and complex engagements with modernity (also within the
West)
➔ Opening up the horizon of possibilities of what it means to be human (➔ Pluriverse = Plurality
of realities; Diverse world)
Decolonization is a process that began in 1940s and continued into 1960s, and it remains relevant
today. It is a political movement aimed at gaining independence from colonial powers & establishing
self-determination for colonized nations. However, decolonization goes beyond just political and
economic changes; iI also involves changing how we think and view the world. This concept, known
as ‘decolonizing the mind’, challenges the dominance of Western ways of thinking and encourages
the exploration of diverse perspectives and ways of being. This idea is often referred to as a
‘pluriverse’, emphasizing the existence of multiple valid realities.
Anthropology in a decolonizing world
• Decolonization as an ethnographic moment (➔ Studying decoloniality)
• How does the movement of decolonization reshape anthropology?
➔ What to study? In what language? Representational authority? Reciprocity? Etc.
• How does anthropology participate in enlarging the possibilities of being human?
In the field of anthropology, which studies cultures and societies, decolonization significantly
impacts how research is performed. Anthropologists are now re-evaluating what topics to study, the
languages they use, and who has the authority to represent different cultures. They are also
considering how their work can expand the understanding of what it means to be human. Overall,
decolonization is essential not only for political and economic liberation but also for enriching our
understanding of humanity and culture.
Practical aspects & Course calendar
Course description: In this course, we will study the different ways in which anthropological
discourse and ethnographic practice have evolved since the inception of anthropology as an
academic discipline. We take the call and the moment of decoloniality as a vantage point to
reflect on how colonialism has historically shaped the discipline, and how anthropology can, at
the same time, be a means to untangle and tackle this legacy. Decoloniality is here understood
both as an ethical and a political horizon, as a praxis, as a socio-historical moment, and as an
epistemological tradition. The first part of this course will trace the historical trajectories of
anthropological thought from the second half of the nineteenth century to the 1980s. The
second part addresses critical engagements with anthropology’s colonial legacy, which have
led to a decolonial ethos that continues to reshape and restructure anthropological thought and
practice as a self-reflexive discipline. The third part carries these insights back into the field by
addressing the ethnographic realities of négritude (a 1930s movement led by Black intellectuals
like Aimé Césaire that celebrated Black identity and African heritage, rejecting colonialism and
European cultural dominance), migration, gender, etc., which exemplify the strength of
anthropology’s self-reflexive approach.
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,➔ How anthropology has changed since it started. We’ll explore how colonialism affected the field
and how anthropology can help address its past. The course has 3 parts:
1) The first covers the development of anthropological ideas from the late 19th century to the
1980s
2) The second focuses on responses to colonialism that encourage a decolonial approach
3) The third examines current topics like négritude, migration, and gender to show how
anthropology reflects on its own practices
Course material: Reader & Slides ➔ The reader contains a selection of 21 texts
Exam: Written exam, 3 open-ended questions + define a set of keywords, closed book ➔ You
can answer in Dutch, if you don’t know the answers in English!
- They don’t correct spelling mistakes, so it is no disaster if you make them ☺
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, Text 1: Thomas Hylland Eriksen (2001), Chapter 2 (A Brief History of Anthropology) from
Small Places, Large Issues. An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology.
Proto-Anthropology: Anthropology is a relatively new field of study, but people have been thinking
about cultural differences for a long time. The ancient Greeks, including the historian Herodotus,
wrote about the cultures of different people. Later, Enlightenment thinkers like Montesquieu
compared aspects of different societies, like France and Persia.
Victorian Anthropology (19th Century): 19th century anthropology was influenced by the idea of social
evolution. Anthropologists believed that societies developed in stages from ‘savagery’ to
‘civilization’, with European societies at the top. Lewis Henry Morgan and Edward Tylor, important
anthropologists of this era, believed that cultures developed along a single path, with Western
culture being the most advanced. They relied on writings by missionaries and travelers for their
information, rather than their own fieldwork.
Early 20th Century Anthropology: In the early 1900s anthropology shifted away from the idea of social
evolution toward cultural relativism ➔ The idea that each culture must be understood on its own
terms. Franz Boas, a prominent American anthropologist, argued strongly for cultural relativism and
the importance of fieldwork. He challenged racist ideas that were common at the time. In Britain,
Bronislaw Malinowski and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown established fieldwork as a central method in
anthropology. Malinowski emphasized understanding the function of social practices within a
society & Radcliffe-Brown focused on how social structures maintain order and stability. In France,
Marcel Mauss, drawing on historical sources, studied topics such as gift exchanges, magic, and the
concept of the person.
Mid-20th Century Anthropology: After World War II, anthropology expanded, with more
anthropologists studying a greater variety of places. There were growing critiques of the idea that
societies were static and functioned like organisms. Anthropologists like Edmund Leach and
Raymond Firth argued that social life is dynamic and influenced by individual choices. Max
Gluckman and his students in Manchester developed the study of social conflict and change.
Late 20th Century Anthropology: Anthropologists questioned the objectivity of ethnographic
research. Clifford Geertz argued that anthropologists should focus on interpreting the meanings that
people give to their actions, rather than simply describing their behavior. Anthropologists began
studying a wider range of topics in modern and industrialized societies, including their ‘home’
societies. There was a renewed interest in Marxist ideas about power and inequality and a new focus
on the effects of colonialism.
Key Concepts
- Social Evolution: The idea that societies progress through stages, from simple to complex.
- Cultural Relativism: Understanding and evaluating cultures based on their own terms and
values, rather than judging them by the standards of another culture.
- Fieldwork: The method of living with a group of people for an extended period to learn about
their culture.
- Functionalism: The idea that cultural practices and institutions serve specific functions
within a society.
- Structuralism: The idea that there are underlying structures of thought that are common to
all humans.
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