HOOFDSTUK 7: GROUPS, SOCIAL PROCESSES, AND COMMUNICATIONS
Reference groups: those groups that are used by a person as a basis for comparison and guidance
when forming their beliefs, attituded, and behaviors.
- First defined by Hyman (1942) as reference points that individuals use to evaluate their
situation.
- Park and Lessig (1977) developed the concept to include ‘an actual or imaginary institution,
individual or group conceived as having significant relevance upon an individual’s
evaluations, aspirations or behavior.’ This broadens the idea of reference groups from an
individual person to an institution.
Two dimensions of reference groups:
- Membership groups: are those to which we belong (contactual, identificational or
associative) and those which we no longer wish to be associated with (disclaimant).
- Attractiveness: groups to which we aspire to belong (aspirational) and others which we wish
to avoid entirely (avoidance and dissociative)
- Contractual or associative: close groups with which we interact regularly and where there is
a degree of proximity. (Family or friendship ties, or through mutual interests such as work,
hobby or a sporting interest)
- Disclaimant: one that we currently belong to or perhaps belonged to in the past but no
longer want to associate ourselves with. (you don’t longer want to belong to a friend group
that starts using drugs, or you don’t want people to know about belonging to a dieting group
or political group)
- Aspirational: people that the consumer can identify with or admire (often from afar) and
aspires to be like in some way. (individual representing some state or position we aspire to
be like, for their skills or for their style/glamour or lifestyle)
- Dissociative or avoidance: groups we have negative feelings towards and whom we avoid
being associated with. (we’ve never been members of such groups, negative feelings
because of their intrinsic qualities)
o if a brand becomes associated with a group that many others wish to dissociate
themselves from, it can be damaged (Burberry, many ‘chavs’ started wearing the
clothes, so the rich people didn’t want to wear it anymore)
Reference groups classified as formal or informal
- Formal group: usually formed by some kind of outside structure, and likely to have a
formalized constitution and set of rules of conduct for members.
o E.g. being a member of a golf club and adhering to strict dress codes.
- Informal group: a group of individuals who have some sort of commonality but no formal
connection to each other.
o Get together because mutual interest, common values or friendship.
, - You may find informal groups within a formal group (a football team in a large organization)
The importance of reference groups for marketing is the influence that they bring to bear on others,
particularly in terms of which products or brands are bought and how different groups consume
them.
Three main mechanisms of reference groups:
- Informational group influence: when a consumer uses the reference group to actively get
information from opinion leaders or expert groups.
o We might purchase the same equipment as a celebrity use.
- Utilitarian reference group influence: when a person is influenced in their choice of brand by
the preferences of those with whom they socialize, including family members and work
colleagues.
- Value-expressive influence: when someone buys a particular brand to enhance their image
and because they admire characteristics of people who use the band.
,Bearden and Etzel model
- Influence of reference groups is high for products and brands that are typically consumer in
public spaces, even more so when the item is a luxury.
Conformity: adoption of behavior resulting from real or perceived pressure to comply with a person
or group. Mann (1969) identified four types:
- Normative: when a person wants to fit in with the group or is afraid of being rejected by
them and will publicly accept the group’s view even if privately they don’t agree.
o e.g. sort and recycle in order to fit into neighborhood norms and expectations.
- Informational: when someone actively looks for guidance from the group where they lack
knowledge or are in an ambiguous situation.
o E.g. chat to other neighbors and consult websites to learn more about recycling.
- Compliance: publicly changing behavior to fit in with the group but privately disagreeing,
that is, a behavioral shift without an attitudinal one.
o E.g. recycle but perhaps disagree with and resent the time taken.
- Internalization: involves both an attitudinal and behavioral change in favor of the group.
o E.g. recycling because they believe in the value and importance of this behavior.
Reactance: motivational state, which acts as a counterforce to threats to a person’s freedom. (when
group pressure appears to limit independent choice, people react to reassert their freedom to
decide)
Social power: potential influence. 6 bases of social power:
- Reward power: may be present when a person responds to the influence of the group and is
rewarded in some way.
, - Coercive power: conformity to the group is brought about trough the threat of punishment.
- Legitimate power: where the referent is seen to have authority by virtue of their position in
the particular context (often achieved in service businesses through the use of uniforms to
show authority).
- Expert power: influenced to behave or purchase something by someone who we recognize
has particular expertise (doctor/scientist)
- Referent power: although the influence stems from our admiration of the qualities of a
person and how we try to imitate those qualities by coping their behavior (celebrities)
- Informational power: logical argument and knowledge that someone may have acquired
from experience or through the nature of their job (they know something that others would
like to know)
Opinion leaders: individuals who exert an unequal amount of influence on the decisions of others.
Two step flow of communication: media → opinion leader → receiver
- Media had little direct influence on the public.
The law of the few: small group of influential people can accelerate or stop the adoption of a
product. Types of opinion leaders:
- Connectors: people who tend to know lots of other people, often from different subcultures
to their own. Not necessarily very well, but well enough to pass on information to others.
- Mavens: collectors and brokers of information, but they use this information and want to
start discussions with others or respond to requests (inside knowledge)
- Salesmen: arch persuaders, people who won’t accept ‘no’ for an answer and are always
looking for an opportunity to get their message across to someone else.
Opinion seekers: people who seek opinions and information to help their purchase decision (form of
external information search)
Watts and Dodds (2007):
- Concluded that information flow doesn’t succeed because of a critical mass of easily
influenced individuals influencing other easy-to-influence people.
- Influence can flow in both directions between leaders and followers.
- Accidental influential: getting a large number of ordinary people to influence other people is
the best way to spread the message about a brand.
Reference groups: those groups that are used by a person as a basis for comparison and guidance
when forming their beliefs, attituded, and behaviors.
- First defined by Hyman (1942) as reference points that individuals use to evaluate their
situation.
- Park and Lessig (1977) developed the concept to include ‘an actual or imaginary institution,
individual or group conceived as having significant relevance upon an individual’s
evaluations, aspirations or behavior.’ This broadens the idea of reference groups from an
individual person to an institution.
Two dimensions of reference groups:
- Membership groups: are those to which we belong (contactual, identificational or
associative) and those which we no longer wish to be associated with (disclaimant).
- Attractiveness: groups to which we aspire to belong (aspirational) and others which we wish
to avoid entirely (avoidance and dissociative)
- Contractual or associative: close groups with which we interact regularly and where there is
a degree of proximity. (Family or friendship ties, or through mutual interests such as work,
hobby or a sporting interest)
- Disclaimant: one that we currently belong to or perhaps belonged to in the past but no
longer want to associate ourselves with. (you don’t longer want to belong to a friend group
that starts using drugs, or you don’t want people to know about belonging to a dieting group
or political group)
- Aspirational: people that the consumer can identify with or admire (often from afar) and
aspires to be like in some way. (individual representing some state or position we aspire to
be like, for their skills or for their style/glamour or lifestyle)
- Dissociative or avoidance: groups we have negative feelings towards and whom we avoid
being associated with. (we’ve never been members of such groups, negative feelings
because of their intrinsic qualities)
o if a brand becomes associated with a group that many others wish to dissociate
themselves from, it can be damaged (Burberry, many ‘chavs’ started wearing the
clothes, so the rich people didn’t want to wear it anymore)
Reference groups classified as formal or informal
- Formal group: usually formed by some kind of outside structure, and likely to have a
formalized constitution and set of rules of conduct for members.
o E.g. being a member of a golf club and adhering to strict dress codes.
- Informal group: a group of individuals who have some sort of commonality but no formal
connection to each other.
o Get together because mutual interest, common values or friendship.
, - You may find informal groups within a formal group (a football team in a large organization)
The importance of reference groups for marketing is the influence that they bring to bear on others,
particularly in terms of which products or brands are bought and how different groups consume
them.
Three main mechanisms of reference groups:
- Informational group influence: when a consumer uses the reference group to actively get
information from opinion leaders or expert groups.
o We might purchase the same equipment as a celebrity use.
- Utilitarian reference group influence: when a person is influenced in their choice of brand by
the preferences of those with whom they socialize, including family members and work
colleagues.
- Value-expressive influence: when someone buys a particular brand to enhance their image
and because they admire characteristics of people who use the band.
,Bearden and Etzel model
- Influence of reference groups is high for products and brands that are typically consumer in
public spaces, even more so when the item is a luxury.
Conformity: adoption of behavior resulting from real or perceived pressure to comply with a person
or group. Mann (1969) identified four types:
- Normative: when a person wants to fit in with the group or is afraid of being rejected by
them and will publicly accept the group’s view even if privately they don’t agree.
o e.g. sort and recycle in order to fit into neighborhood norms and expectations.
- Informational: when someone actively looks for guidance from the group where they lack
knowledge or are in an ambiguous situation.
o E.g. chat to other neighbors and consult websites to learn more about recycling.
- Compliance: publicly changing behavior to fit in with the group but privately disagreeing,
that is, a behavioral shift without an attitudinal one.
o E.g. recycle but perhaps disagree with and resent the time taken.
- Internalization: involves both an attitudinal and behavioral change in favor of the group.
o E.g. recycling because they believe in the value and importance of this behavior.
Reactance: motivational state, which acts as a counterforce to threats to a person’s freedom. (when
group pressure appears to limit independent choice, people react to reassert their freedom to
decide)
Social power: potential influence. 6 bases of social power:
- Reward power: may be present when a person responds to the influence of the group and is
rewarded in some way.
, - Coercive power: conformity to the group is brought about trough the threat of punishment.
- Legitimate power: where the referent is seen to have authority by virtue of their position in
the particular context (often achieved in service businesses through the use of uniforms to
show authority).
- Expert power: influenced to behave or purchase something by someone who we recognize
has particular expertise (doctor/scientist)
- Referent power: although the influence stems from our admiration of the qualities of a
person and how we try to imitate those qualities by coping their behavior (celebrities)
- Informational power: logical argument and knowledge that someone may have acquired
from experience or through the nature of their job (they know something that others would
like to know)
Opinion leaders: individuals who exert an unequal amount of influence on the decisions of others.
Two step flow of communication: media → opinion leader → receiver
- Media had little direct influence on the public.
The law of the few: small group of influential people can accelerate or stop the adoption of a
product. Types of opinion leaders:
- Connectors: people who tend to know lots of other people, often from different subcultures
to their own. Not necessarily very well, but well enough to pass on information to others.
- Mavens: collectors and brokers of information, but they use this information and want to
start discussions with others or respond to requests (inside knowledge)
- Salesmen: arch persuaders, people who won’t accept ‘no’ for an answer and are always
looking for an opportunity to get their message across to someone else.
Opinion seekers: people who seek opinions and information to help their purchase decision (form of
external information search)
Watts and Dodds (2007):
- Concluded that information flow doesn’t succeed because of a critical mass of easily
influenced individuals influencing other easy-to-influence people.
- Influence can flow in both directions between leaders and followers.
- Accidental influential: getting a large number of ordinary people to influence other people is
the best way to spread the message about a brand.
