Research Methods
1. BUSINESS RESEARCH
T heory: generalisation of insights that come from data
R esearch may draw on:
- primary data = gathered first-hand, didn’t exist before
- s econdary data = previously collected, already exists
Applied research basic research
- A nswers to research question related - D riven by curiosity, more complex
to action, performance or policy - >build theories that may serve as a
- > Practical problem-solving of a f oundation of further studies
s pecific business problem - No direct impact on action,
- More specific and faster answer performance or policy
- C onducted by academics, - > but Innovations or practical
practitioners policy makers implications may occur in long run
- Mainly conducted by academics
= business research mostly
hy managers need to know about research:
W
T o identify and solve problems, make the right decisions based on facts rather than vested
Interests
C haracteristics of scientific research
1) Purposiveness: to answer a question/ solve a problem
2) R igor: Good theoretical base and methodology ->very exact
Ex. researcher asks 10-12 employees to indicate what would increase their level of
commitment: not very scientific because lacks theoretical en methodological base
because simply asking them questions is too vague and no structured instrument is
u sed
3) T
estability: Applies to the hypotheses of the study
Hypothesis: a testable statement, predicts what you expect to find in empirical data,
u sed in quantitative research
Ex. “Employees who actively participate in decision making will have a
higher level of commitment than employees who do not”
<->proposition: not testable because more abstract, used in qualitative research
Ex. "Organizational support influences employee attitudes."
, 4) V alidity
Internal: are the results accurate? Did X cause Y?
External: Can the results be used with other people, in other places, or at other times?
- > Generalizability
)
5 bjectivity: no bias
O
6 ) G eneralizability = quantitative (qualitative research cannot be generalised)
7) R epresentativity: Sample with sufficiently large number of elements or events?
8 ) R eplicability: Findings and conclusions should be replicable in other studies.
= applying methodology to new data
- >researcher can contribute to replicability of the research by: making it accessible,
clear reporting,...
9) P
arsimony = simplicity
- > Ockham’s razor
“Three factors explaining commitment by 50%” are more useful than “ten factors
e xplaining commitment by 55%”
- > Best: greatest possible empirical facts from smallest possible number of
Hypotheses
2. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
2 .1 The hypothetico-deductive approach
A seven-step process:
1) Identify a broad problem area
2) Define the problem statement, incl. objective or research question(s): gather ideas
related to the problem, Narrow down and develop aconceptual framework
3) D
evelop testable hypothesis/-es : possible to test if true or false trough data
(ex. Grades of students who missed class would have been higher if they had
a ttended classes” = not testable because you can’t observe both scenarios)
4) C
hoose measures for the variables in the hypotheses (ex. % of classes attended;
g rades %)
- >proxy measurements= indirect measure of a concept that cannot be measured
directly. Ex. Student engagement, so you use: attendance rate, number of questions
a sked, time spent on course website,…
5 ) C ollect data: for each variable
, 6 ) A
nalyze the data: to see whether they support or reject the hypothesizes, by using
Statistical techniques (correlation analysis, regression analysis,..)
7) Interpret the data
Null hypothesis H0 = There is no effect, no relationship, or no difference. (ex.
“Students who attend class and those who skip class have the same average
g rades.”)
Alternative hypothesis Ha or H1 = your own hypo, there IS an effect
- If H0 is rejected, => plausible explanation for the
a lternative => make recommendations about this
outcome, answering the question “What should
people do with this finding?” e.g. towards theory,
policy, management: ex. Lecturers should track
a ttendance
- If H0 not rejected, alternative claim not supported,more future research
needed.
2 .2 Deductive and inductive approach
deductive inductive
- T o test a theory - T o develop a theory
- Approach: Theory => Data => - Approach: Data => Findings/Patterns
F indings => Theory
=>sequential use: best of both worlds
- Inductive->deductive: you start by observing patterns in data or real-life phenomena &
g enerate tentative explanation or theory -> You take that new idea/theory and
f ormally test it with new data.
- Deductive -> inductive (the hypothetico-deductive approach): You start with a theory
or hypothesis -> After testing, you find unexpected results or new patterns. You then
revise or expand the theory based on your observations
T entative= not yet certain, fixed, or fully developed, is subject to change.
2.3 Ontology and epistemology
- ntology: Study of the nature of reality
O
- >Helps you look at reality (objects) you are studying
Objectivism s ubjectivism/ constructionism
“There is an objective truth” “There is no objective reality.”
- >All researchers understand reality in the - >Researchers may construct different
s ame way perceptions of reality, based on personal
e xperience, moral point of view,…
Ex., stress, taste, fairness
, => Some concepts can be studied from both an objective and subjective perspective.
Example: culture -> give objective (languages spoken, dress styles, food,..) and subjective
e lements(values & beliefs, Identity “I feel proud to be a part of it”, emotional attachment to
traditions)
- Epistemology: Study of the nature of knowledge andhow to reach it
- > Influences the way you learn and develop knowledge about that reality
Positivism - --> critical realism <--- interpretivism/phenomenology
- K nowledge is based - O bjective knowledge - K nowledge is built
on observed facts e xists, but is subject through ideas and
- C ause-and-effect to interpretation, interpretation
relationships because it is - Particular contexts
- R esearcher is impossible to fully - Values, thinking
independent analyst reach it process, and
= distance - Part of theory cannot viewpoint of
- Example: be observed researcher also
hypothetico-deductive - ‘What is real’ may count
method differ from what is - Example: Explaining
‘observable’ political power across
- Example: Burnout cultural contexts
may occur without
being observed
A tentative synthesis
! Tendancies, rather than clear cut distinctions
1. BUSINESS RESEARCH
T heory: generalisation of insights that come from data
R esearch may draw on:
- primary data = gathered first-hand, didn’t exist before
- s econdary data = previously collected, already exists
Applied research basic research
- A nswers to research question related - D riven by curiosity, more complex
to action, performance or policy - >build theories that may serve as a
- > Practical problem-solving of a f oundation of further studies
s pecific business problem - No direct impact on action,
- More specific and faster answer performance or policy
- C onducted by academics, - > but Innovations or practical
practitioners policy makers implications may occur in long run
- Mainly conducted by academics
= business research mostly
hy managers need to know about research:
W
T o identify and solve problems, make the right decisions based on facts rather than vested
Interests
C haracteristics of scientific research
1) Purposiveness: to answer a question/ solve a problem
2) R igor: Good theoretical base and methodology ->very exact
Ex. researcher asks 10-12 employees to indicate what would increase their level of
commitment: not very scientific because lacks theoretical en methodological base
because simply asking them questions is too vague and no structured instrument is
u sed
3) T
estability: Applies to the hypotheses of the study
Hypothesis: a testable statement, predicts what you expect to find in empirical data,
u sed in quantitative research
Ex. “Employees who actively participate in decision making will have a
higher level of commitment than employees who do not”
<->proposition: not testable because more abstract, used in qualitative research
Ex. "Organizational support influences employee attitudes."
, 4) V alidity
Internal: are the results accurate? Did X cause Y?
External: Can the results be used with other people, in other places, or at other times?
- > Generalizability
)
5 bjectivity: no bias
O
6 ) G eneralizability = quantitative (qualitative research cannot be generalised)
7) R epresentativity: Sample with sufficiently large number of elements or events?
8 ) R eplicability: Findings and conclusions should be replicable in other studies.
= applying methodology to new data
- >researcher can contribute to replicability of the research by: making it accessible,
clear reporting,...
9) P
arsimony = simplicity
- > Ockham’s razor
“Three factors explaining commitment by 50%” are more useful than “ten factors
e xplaining commitment by 55%”
- > Best: greatest possible empirical facts from smallest possible number of
Hypotheses
2. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
2 .1 The hypothetico-deductive approach
A seven-step process:
1) Identify a broad problem area
2) Define the problem statement, incl. objective or research question(s): gather ideas
related to the problem, Narrow down and develop aconceptual framework
3) D
evelop testable hypothesis/-es : possible to test if true or false trough data
(ex. Grades of students who missed class would have been higher if they had
a ttended classes” = not testable because you can’t observe both scenarios)
4) C
hoose measures for the variables in the hypotheses (ex. % of classes attended;
g rades %)
- >proxy measurements= indirect measure of a concept that cannot be measured
directly. Ex. Student engagement, so you use: attendance rate, number of questions
a sked, time spent on course website,…
5 ) C ollect data: for each variable
, 6 ) A
nalyze the data: to see whether they support or reject the hypothesizes, by using
Statistical techniques (correlation analysis, regression analysis,..)
7) Interpret the data
Null hypothesis H0 = There is no effect, no relationship, or no difference. (ex.
“Students who attend class and those who skip class have the same average
g rades.”)
Alternative hypothesis Ha or H1 = your own hypo, there IS an effect
- If H0 is rejected, => plausible explanation for the
a lternative => make recommendations about this
outcome, answering the question “What should
people do with this finding?” e.g. towards theory,
policy, management: ex. Lecturers should track
a ttendance
- If H0 not rejected, alternative claim not supported,more future research
needed.
2 .2 Deductive and inductive approach
deductive inductive
- T o test a theory - T o develop a theory
- Approach: Theory => Data => - Approach: Data => Findings/Patterns
F indings => Theory
=>sequential use: best of both worlds
- Inductive->deductive: you start by observing patterns in data or real-life phenomena &
g enerate tentative explanation or theory -> You take that new idea/theory and
f ormally test it with new data.
- Deductive -> inductive (the hypothetico-deductive approach): You start with a theory
or hypothesis -> After testing, you find unexpected results or new patterns. You then
revise or expand the theory based on your observations
T entative= not yet certain, fixed, or fully developed, is subject to change.
2.3 Ontology and epistemology
- ntology: Study of the nature of reality
O
- >Helps you look at reality (objects) you are studying
Objectivism s ubjectivism/ constructionism
“There is an objective truth” “There is no objective reality.”
- >All researchers understand reality in the - >Researchers may construct different
s ame way perceptions of reality, based on personal
e xperience, moral point of view,…
Ex., stress, taste, fairness
, => Some concepts can be studied from both an objective and subjective perspective.
Example: culture -> give objective (languages spoken, dress styles, food,..) and subjective
e lements(values & beliefs, Identity “I feel proud to be a part of it”, emotional attachment to
traditions)
- Epistemology: Study of the nature of knowledge andhow to reach it
- > Influences the way you learn and develop knowledge about that reality
Positivism - --> critical realism <--- interpretivism/phenomenology
- K nowledge is based - O bjective knowledge - K nowledge is built
on observed facts e xists, but is subject through ideas and
- C ause-and-effect to interpretation, interpretation
relationships because it is - Particular contexts
- R esearcher is impossible to fully - Values, thinking
independent analyst reach it process, and
= distance - Part of theory cannot viewpoint of
- Example: be observed researcher also
hypothetico-deductive - ‘What is real’ may count
method differ from what is - Example: Explaining
‘observable’ political power across
- Example: Burnout cultural contexts
may occur without
being observed
A tentative synthesis
! Tendancies, rather than clear cut distinctions
