Prelude: The Roman World Transformed (c.300-
c.600)
At the beginning of the third century, the Roman Empire included Italy, North Africa coast, Spain,
England, Wales, France, Belgium, the Balkans (Greece..), Turkey, Syria, Modern Lebanon, Israel and
Egypt. All the regions except Italy were known as provinces.
The Provincialization of the Empire (c.250 - c.350)
The Roman Empire was too large to be ruled by one man in one place, except in peacetime; this
became clear during the crisis of the third century:
- External cause: two different groups from two different directions attacked the frontier of the
Empire
- The Roman government responded to those attacked with some reform1:
- Expand the army (new crack mobile troops, reinforcing standing army..).
- There weren’t enough recruits: they had to come from Germany or elsewhere
(Land in return for military service).
- The city of Rome was too far from any of the fields of war to serve as military
headquarters, that’s why Milan, Trier, Sardica, Nicomedia, Constantinople and, later
on, Ravenna were turned into new capital → the wealth and labour of the Empire
moved toward the provinces.
- Internal cause: political succession crisis that saw more than twenty men claim the title of
emperor2 between 235 and 284.
- For administrative purpose, Diocletian divided the Empire into four parts (later reduced
to two) each of them governed by an emperor.
- The war over imperial succession ended with the establishment of Constantine’s
dynasty.
- End: Diocletian brought the crisis under control and Constantine brought it to an end.
A New Religion
The empire of Constantine was meant to be the Roman empire restored, yet it couldn’t differ more
from the old Roman Empire: it marks the end of the classical era and the beginning of the Late
Antiquity, a period transformed by the culture and the religion of the provinces.
- The Jews of Palestine gave birth to new religious groups, one coalesced around Jesus →
Christianity
3
- At first Romans elite were indifferent to Christianity: they had never insisted that the
provincials give up their beliefs → they added official Roman gods into local
pantheons4.
- Christianity attracts men and women who had never been given the chance to feel
truly Roman: the new religion was confident, hopeful and universal → they were
welcomed as equal in small assemblies where God was the same, no matter what
religion they followed before.
1
That brought new importance to the provinces.
2
Most of them were military men, chose to rule by their troops.
3
Devoted to the gods that serve them so well over the years
4
Paganism was thus at one and the same time personal, familial, local and imperial
, - The Romans persecuted Christians because they didn’t want to worship any other God.
The Jews also refused to honour the Roman gods, but the Roman could usually
(barely) tolerate their practice as part of their particular cultural identity. Christians,
however, claimed their God not only for themselves but for all.
Major official government persecutions of Christians began in 250s, with the third-
century crisis.
- Despite their tiny number (10% of the population), they were well organised: they
gathered into ‛churches‛5 and formed a two-tiered institution:
6
- At the bottom, there were the people
7 8
- Above were the clergy, that was supervised by a regional bishop who was
assisted by ‚presbyters‛, deacons and lesser servitors. Some bishop
(Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, Jerusalem and Rome) were more important
than others.
- In 313, in the Edict of Milan, Emperors Licinius and Constantine9 declared toleration for all the
religions in the Empire ‚so that whatever divinity is enthroned in heaven maybe gracious and
favourable to us‛.
- Constantine favoured Christianity:
- Making sure that property was restored to churches that had been stripped during the
persecutions.
- Giving special privileges to priests.
- The ancient Greek city of Byzantium became a new Christian city (with his name →
Constantinople).
- He called and presided over the first ecumenical (universal) church council, the Council
of Nicaea, in 325 → some of the Canon law and doctrine of the Christian church were
hammered out.
- In a series of laws starting in 380 with the Edict of Thessalonica, Emperor Theodosius I
declared that the form of Christianity determined by the Council of Nicaea applied to all
Romans → Christianity was now the official religion of the Roman Empire.
As Paganism gave way to Christianity, disagreements within Christianity came to the
foreground. Christians fought amongst themselves over Doctrine issues and the location of
the holy.
Doctrine
For both Saint Athanasius (295-373) and Priest Arius (250-336, after which the Arians were named)
God was triune, that is, three persons in one: the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.
Their debate was about the nature of these persons:
- Arians viewed the Father as pure Godhead, while the Son (Christ) was created → Christ was
therefore not purely human, nor purely divine, but mediating in between.
- To Athanasius and the assembled bishops at Nicaea, this was Heresy: they viewed Christ as
being of the same substance as the Father.
Arius was condemned and banished, but his doctrine managed to persist.
5
From the Greek world ekklesia= assemply
6
‚Laity‛ from Greek laikos = of the people
7
From Greek kleros = lot, or inheritance
8
From Greek episkopos = overseer
9
He was the chief force behind the Edict: it was emitted just after his triumphant battle at the Milvian Bridge against his rival
emperor Maxentius in 312, a victory that he attributed to the God of the Christians.
c.600)
At the beginning of the third century, the Roman Empire included Italy, North Africa coast, Spain,
England, Wales, France, Belgium, the Balkans (Greece..), Turkey, Syria, Modern Lebanon, Israel and
Egypt. All the regions except Italy were known as provinces.
The Provincialization of the Empire (c.250 - c.350)
The Roman Empire was too large to be ruled by one man in one place, except in peacetime; this
became clear during the crisis of the third century:
- External cause: two different groups from two different directions attacked the frontier of the
Empire
- The Roman government responded to those attacked with some reform1:
- Expand the army (new crack mobile troops, reinforcing standing army..).
- There weren’t enough recruits: they had to come from Germany or elsewhere
(Land in return for military service).
- The city of Rome was too far from any of the fields of war to serve as military
headquarters, that’s why Milan, Trier, Sardica, Nicomedia, Constantinople and, later
on, Ravenna were turned into new capital → the wealth and labour of the Empire
moved toward the provinces.
- Internal cause: political succession crisis that saw more than twenty men claim the title of
emperor2 between 235 and 284.
- For administrative purpose, Diocletian divided the Empire into four parts (later reduced
to two) each of them governed by an emperor.
- The war over imperial succession ended with the establishment of Constantine’s
dynasty.
- End: Diocletian brought the crisis under control and Constantine brought it to an end.
A New Religion
The empire of Constantine was meant to be the Roman empire restored, yet it couldn’t differ more
from the old Roman Empire: it marks the end of the classical era and the beginning of the Late
Antiquity, a period transformed by the culture and the religion of the provinces.
- The Jews of Palestine gave birth to new religious groups, one coalesced around Jesus →
Christianity
3
- At first Romans elite were indifferent to Christianity: they had never insisted that the
provincials give up their beliefs → they added official Roman gods into local
pantheons4.
- Christianity attracts men and women who had never been given the chance to feel
truly Roman: the new religion was confident, hopeful and universal → they were
welcomed as equal in small assemblies where God was the same, no matter what
religion they followed before.
1
That brought new importance to the provinces.
2
Most of them were military men, chose to rule by their troops.
3
Devoted to the gods that serve them so well over the years
4
Paganism was thus at one and the same time personal, familial, local and imperial
, - The Romans persecuted Christians because they didn’t want to worship any other God.
The Jews also refused to honour the Roman gods, but the Roman could usually
(barely) tolerate their practice as part of their particular cultural identity. Christians,
however, claimed their God not only for themselves but for all.
Major official government persecutions of Christians began in 250s, with the third-
century crisis.
- Despite their tiny number (10% of the population), they were well organised: they
gathered into ‛churches‛5 and formed a two-tiered institution:
6
- At the bottom, there were the people
7 8
- Above were the clergy, that was supervised by a regional bishop who was
assisted by ‚presbyters‛, deacons and lesser servitors. Some bishop
(Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, Jerusalem and Rome) were more important
than others.
- In 313, in the Edict of Milan, Emperors Licinius and Constantine9 declared toleration for all the
religions in the Empire ‚so that whatever divinity is enthroned in heaven maybe gracious and
favourable to us‛.
- Constantine favoured Christianity:
- Making sure that property was restored to churches that had been stripped during the
persecutions.
- Giving special privileges to priests.
- The ancient Greek city of Byzantium became a new Christian city (with his name →
Constantinople).
- He called and presided over the first ecumenical (universal) church council, the Council
of Nicaea, in 325 → some of the Canon law and doctrine of the Christian church were
hammered out.
- In a series of laws starting in 380 with the Edict of Thessalonica, Emperor Theodosius I
declared that the form of Christianity determined by the Council of Nicaea applied to all
Romans → Christianity was now the official religion of the Roman Empire.
As Paganism gave way to Christianity, disagreements within Christianity came to the
foreground. Christians fought amongst themselves over Doctrine issues and the location of
the holy.
Doctrine
For both Saint Athanasius (295-373) and Priest Arius (250-336, after which the Arians were named)
God was triune, that is, three persons in one: the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.
Their debate was about the nature of these persons:
- Arians viewed the Father as pure Godhead, while the Son (Christ) was created → Christ was
therefore not purely human, nor purely divine, but mediating in between.
- To Athanasius and the assembled bishops at Nicaea, this was Heresy: they viewed Christ as
being of the same substance as the Father.
Arius was condemned and banished, but his doctrine managed to persist.
5
From the Greek world ekklesia= assemply
6
‚Laity‛ from Greek laikos = of the people
7
From Greek kleros = lot, or inheritance
8
From Greek episkopos = overseer
9
He was the chief force behind the Edict: it was emitted just after his triumphant battle at the Milvian Bridge against his rival
emperor Maxentius in 312, a victory that he attributed to the God of the Christians.
