NSG 530 EXAM 1, 2, 3 & 4 | ADVANCED
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY – WILKES | 2025/2026
QUESTIONS & ANSWER
Pyelonephritis - ANSWER-inflammation of the renal pelvis and the kidney
Chronic Pyelonephritis - ANSWER-Interstitial fibrosis and atrophy of tubules due to multiple bouts of
acute pyelonephritis
Can be associated with chronic UTI's, vesicoureteral reflux, or kidney stones
Cystitis - ANSWER-Inflammation of the bladder
Common pathogens are E. Coli and staphylococcus saphrophyticus
Symptoms of cystitis - ANSWER-Frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower back pain
Renal cell carcinoma - ANSWER-cancerous tumor that arises from kidney tubule cells
Renal adenoma - ANSWER-small, slow-growing glandular noncancerous tumor of the kidney
Renal transitional cell carcinoma - ANSWER-rare and primarily arises in the renal parenchyma and
renal pelvis.
Transitional cell carcinoma - ANSWER-a malignant tumor of the urinary tract that is often found
within the urinary bladder or within the renal pelvis. Generally occurs in older men. Gross painless
hematuria
Gomerulonephritis - ANSWER-inflammation of the glomeruli within the kidney
Primary glomerulonephritis - ANSWER-inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidneys that occurs
independently of other chronic conditions; usually the result of an acute infectious process
secondary glomerulonephritis - ANSWER-inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidneys that results
from other chronic conditions, such as lupus erythematosus or diabetes.
Symptoms of glomerulonephritis - ANSWER-Hematuria with red blood cell casts, proteinuria with
albumin, oliguria, HTN, edema, nephrotic sediment
Types of glomerulonephritis - ANSWER-- membranous nephropathy/ glomerulonephritis
- rapidly progressing glomerulonephritis
-Anti-glomerular basement membrane disease (goodpasture syndrome)
- chronic glomerulonephritis
-diabetic neuropathy
Nephrotic syndrome - ANSWER-loss of large amounts of plasma protein, usually albumin, through
urine due to an increased permeability of the glomerular membrane
Causes of nephrotic syndrome - ANSWER-Membranous glomerulonephritis
Minimal change nephropathy
Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis
-systemic disease such as diabetes or lupus
,Hypospadias - ANSWER-congenital abnormality in which the male urethral opening is on the
undersurface of the penis, instead of at its tip
Epispadias - ANSWER-Opening of the urethra on the superior surface of the penis
Chordee - ANSWER-a downward curvature of the penis, often associated with hypospadias
Nephroblastoma (Wilms tumor) - ANSWER-A rapidly developing malignancy of the kidneys, usually
affecting children before age 5. Normally found by parents due to swelling.
PCOS diagnosis - ANSWER-Have to have two of the following:
-Irregular ovulation
-Elevated levels of androgen
-Polycystic ovaries on ultrasound
PCOS (polycystic ovarian syndrome) - ANSWER-An endocrine disorder associated with chronic
anovulation, most common in young women (teens to twenties). High LH/FSH ratio in blood; A
hormonal disorder causing enlarged ovaries with small cysts on the outer edges.
Chlamydia - ANSWER-A bacterial infection that affects the reproductive organs of both males and
females. Can cause permanent damage to a woman's reproductive system. Can also cause ectopic
pregnancy.
Symptoms of Chlamydia - ANSWER-urethritis; penile and vaginal discharges; abdominal, rectal, or
testicular pain; painful intercourse; irregular menses
Syphilis - ANSWER-an STD that attacks many parts of the body and is caused by a small bacterium
called a spirochete. 3 phases
Primary stage of syphilis - ANSWER-the first few weeks of a syphilis infection during which the
chancre is present and can be present on the mouth, penis, vagina, anus
secondary stage of syphilis - ANSWER-Skin rashes and/or sores in the mouth, vagina, or anus. A rash
that appears on the soles of the feet or palms. Fever, swollen lymph nodes, sore throat, patchy hair
loss, headaches, weight loss, muscle aches, fatigue
Latent syphilis - ANSWER-the third stage of syphilis, which may last for years, during which symptoms
disappear although the person is still infected
Tertiary syphilis - ANSWER-Damages internal organs and can result in death if not treated
Ghonnorea - ANSWER-Infects the mucus membrane of the reproductive tract including the cervix,
uterus, and fallopian tubes in women. The urethra can be affected in women and men
Ghonnorea symptoms - ANSWER-Discharge, dysuria, unusual sores, or rash
Trichomoniasis - ANSWER-an STD caused by a microscopic protozoan that results in infections of the
vagina, urethra, and bladder
Trichomoniasis symptoms - ANSWER-Itching, burning, redness, sores, dysuria, clear, white yellow, or
green vaginal discharge with a fishy smell
Vaginal candidiasis - ANSWER-a vaginal infection caused by the yeast-like fungus Candida albicans;
also known as a yeast infection.
Vaginal Candidiasis symptoms - ANSWER-Itching, soreness, dyspareunia, dysuria, abnormal vaginal
discharge (thick, white)
,Bacterial vaginosis - ANSWER-An overgrowth of bacteria in the vagina; characterized by itching,
burning, or pain, and possibly a "fishy" smelling discharge.
Ovarian cysts - ANSWER-collections of fluid within a sac (cyst) in the ovary
Follicular cysts - ANSWER-transient condition in which the dominant follicle fails to rupture
corpus leutum cyst - ANSWER-Highly vascularized cysts formed by the granulosa cells left behind after
ovulation
Can rupture and cause hemorrhage
Dermoid cyst - ANSWER-ovarian teratomas that contain elements of all three germ layers. Have
malignant potential
Cervical cancer - ANSWER-Malignant cell growth in the cervix; can be caused by HPV virus. Normal
cervical cells change to dysplasia to carcinoma in situ and eventually invasive cancer. Predominantly
asymptomatic
Vulvar cancer - ANSWER--Usually squamous cell carcinoma
-Associated with HPV, increasing age, previous cancer, autoimmune conditions, and
immunosuppression
Endometrial cancer - ANSWER-malignant tumor of the endometrium (also called uterine cancer).
Primary risk factor is unopposed estrogen exposure (without progesterone). Manifested by abnormal
vaginal bleeding.
Ovarian cancer - ANSWER-malignant tumor of the ovary. Usually no early symptoms
Paraphimosis - ANSWER-condition in which a retracted foreskin cannot be pulled forward to cover the
glans
Phimosis - ANSWER-Inability to retract foreskin. Frequently caused by poor hygiene
Peyronie's disease - ANSWER-"Bent nail syndrome". Slow development of fibrous plaques in the
erectile tissue of the corpus cavernosa, causing lateral curvature of the penis during erection
Priapism - ANSWER-Prolonged erection. Urologic emergency. Have to drain blood from the penis.
Balantitis - ANSWER-Inflammation of the glans penis. Accumulation under the foreskin can irritate the
glans and lead to infection.
Category 1 prostatitis - ANSWER--acute bacterial prostatitis
-Ascending infection of the urinary tract
-infection stimulates an inflammatory response in which the prostate becomes enlarged, tender, firm,
or boggy
Category 2 prostatitis - ANSWER-chronic bacterial prostatitis. Recurrent urinary tract symptoms and
persistence of pathogenic bacteria in urine or prostatic fluid. Prostate may be fibrotic from frequent
infection.
Category 3 prostatitis - ANSWER-chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain. No pathogenic bacteria can
be localized to the prostate.
-category 3a- chronic pelvic pain syndrome with WBC count elevated and localized to prostate
-category 3b- noninflammatory
, Category 4 prostatitis - ANSWER-Asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis. There is an increase in
bacteria and WBC localized to the prostate.
GERD - ANSWER-Reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus
GERD symptoms - ANSWER--Heartburn 30-60 minutes after meals with reclining
-Relief with antacids
-Regurgitation/reflux
-Dysphagia
-Asthma
-Cough
-Laryngitis
-Sore throat
-Chest pain
Hiatal hernia - ANSWER-A condition in which a portion of the stomach protrudes upward into the
chest, through an opening in the diaphragm.
Peptic Ulcer Disease - ANSWER-A break or ulceration in the protective mucosal lining of the lower
esophagus, stomach, or duodenum.
-superficial: Erosions
Duodenal ulcers - ANSWER-Ulcers of the small intestine caused by NSAIDs and Helicobacter pylori
infection. Characterized by intermittent pain in the epigastric area
-relieved rapidly by ingestion of foods or antacids
Ulcerative colitis - ANSWER-a chronic condition of unknown cause in which repeated episodes of
inflammation in the rectum and large intestine cause ulcers and irritation.
Symptoms of ulcerative colitis - ANSWER-hematochezia, diarrhea with mucus/pus, tenesmus, rectal
urgency
Chron's disease - ANSWER-A chronic inflammatory bowel disease that affects the lining of the
digestive tract. Skip lesions. Ulcerations that can cause fissures that extend into the lymphatics.
Anemia may result from the malabsorption of B vitamins and folic acid.
Celiac disease - ANSWER-Gluten causes inflammation in the small intestine which leads to
malabsorption and decreased functionality. Bloating, chronic diarrhea, constipation, gas, loose stools,
nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain
Pancreatitis - ANSWER-Inflammation of the pancreas. Develops due to an obstruction of the outflow
of pancreatic enzymes caused by bile and pancreatic duct obstruction
Acute pancreatitis - ANSWER-May result from drugs, cellular injury from alcohol, or viral infection
-epigastric or midabdominal constant pain
Chronic pancreatitis - ANSWER-Process of progressive fibrotic destruction of the pancreas
Related to chronic alcohol abuse
Continuous or intermittent abdominal pain and weight loss are common
Risk factor for pancreatic cancer
Cirrhosis - ANSWER-irreversible, chronic, progressive degeneration of liver w/fibrosis. s/s: fatigue,
hepatomegaly, RUQ pain, jaundice, steatorrhea, clay-colored stools, ascities, hepatic encephalopathy.
Rx: steroids, vit B.
Alcoholic liver disease - ANSWER-A degenerative liver condition that occurs in three stages: (1) fatty
liver, (2) alcoholic hepatitis, and (3) cirrhosis.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY – WILKES | 2025/2026
QUESTIONS & ANSWER
Pyelonephritis - ANSWER-inflammation of the renal pelvis and the kidney
Chronic Pyelonephritis - ANSWER-Interstitial fibrosis and atrophy of tubules due to multiple bouts of
acute pyelonephritis
Can be associated with chronic UTI's, vesicoureteral reflux, or kidney stones
Cystitis - ANSWER-Inflammation of the bladder
Common pathogens are E. Coli and staphylococcus saphrophyticus
Symptoms of cystitis - ANSWER-Frequency, urgency, dysuria, lower back pain
Renal cell carcinoma - ANSWER-cancerous tumor that arises from kidney tubule cells
Renal adenoma - ANSWER-small, slow-growing glandular noncancerous tumor of the kidney
Renal transitional cell carcinoma - ANSWER-rare and primarily arises in the renal parenchyma and
renal pelvis.
Transitional cell carcinoma - ANSWER-a malignant tumor of the urinary tract that is often found
within the urinary bladder or within the renal pelvis. Generally occurs in older men. Gross painless
hematuria
Gomerulonephritis - ANSWER-inflammation of the glomeruli within the kidney
Primary glomerulonephritis - ANSWER-inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidneys that occurs
independently of other chronic conditions; usually the result of an acute infectious process
secondary glomerulonephritis - ANSWER-inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidneys that results
from other chronic conditions, such as lupus erythematosus or diabetes.
Symptoms of glomerulonephritis - ANSWER-Hematuria with red blood cell casts, proteinuria with
albumin, oliguria, HTN, edema, nephrotic sediment
Types of glomerulonephritis - ANSWER-- membranous nephropathy/ glomerulonephritis
- rapidly progressing glomerulonephritis
-Anti-glomerular basement membrane disease (goodpasture syndrome)
- chronic glomerulonephritis
-diabetic neuropathy
Nephrotic syndrome - ANSWER-loss of large amounts of plasma protein, usually albumin, through
urine due to an increased permeability of the glomerular membrane
Causes of nephrotic syndrome - ANSWER-Membranous glomerulonephritis
Minimal change nephropathy
Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis
-systemic disease such as diabetes or lupus
,Hypospadias - ANSWER-congenital abnormality in which the male urethral opening is on the
undersurface of the penis, instead of at its tip
Epispadias - ANSWER-Opening of the urethra on the superior surface of the penis
Chordee - ANSWER-a downward curvature of the penis, often associated with hypospadias
Nephroblastoma (Wilms tumor) - ANSWER-A rapidly developing malignancy of the kidneys, usually
affecting children before age 5. Normally found by parents due to swelling.
PCOS diagnosis - ANSWER-Have to have two of the following:
-Irregular ovulation
-Elevated levels of androgen
-Polycystic ovaries on ultrasound
PCOS (polycystic ovarian syndrome) - ANSWER-An endocrine disorder associated with chronic
anovulation, most common in young women (teens to twenties). High LH/FSH ratio in blood; A
hormonal disorder causing enlarged ovaries with small cysts on the outer edges.
Chlamydia - ANSWER-A bacterial infection that affects the reproductive organs of both males and
females. Can cause permanent damage to a woman's reproductive system. Can also cause ectopic
pregnancy.
Symptoms of Chlamydia - ANSWER-urethritis; penile and vaginal discharges; abdominal, rectal, or
testicular pain; painful intercourse; irregular menses
Syphilis - ANSWER-an STD that attacks many parts of the body and is caused by a small bacterium
called a spirochete. 3 phases
Primary stage of syphilis - ANSWER-the first few weeks of a syphilis infection during which the
chancre is present and can be present on the mouth, penis, vagina, anus
secondary stage of syphilis - ANSWER-Skin rashes and/or sores in the mouth, vagina, or anus. A rash
that appears on the soles of the feet or palms. Fever, swollen lymph nodes, sore throat, patchy hair
loss, headaches, weight loss, muscle aches, fatigue
Latent syphilis - ANSWER-the third stage of syphilis, which may last for years, during which symptoms
disappear although the person is still infected
Tertiary syphilis - ANSWER-Damages internal organs and can result in death if not treated
Ghonnorea - ANSWER-Infects the mucus membrane of the reproductive tract including the cervix,
uterus, and fallopian tubes in women. The urethra can be affected in women and men
Ghonnorea symptoms - ANSWER-Discharge, dysuria, unusual sores, or rash
Trichomoniasis - ANSWER-an STD caused by a microscopic protozoan that results in infections of the
vagina, urethra, and bladder
Trichomoniasis symptoms - ANSWER-Itching, burning, redness, sores, dysuria, clear, white yellow, or
green vaginal discharge with a fishy smell
Vaginal candidiasis - ANSWER-a vaginal infection caused by the yeast-like fungus Candida albicans;
also known as a yeast infection.
Vaginal Candidiasis symptoms - ANSWER-Itching, soreness, dyspareunia, dysuria, abnormal vaginal
discharge (thick, white)
,Bacterial vaginosis - ANSWER-An overgrowth of bacteria in the vagina; characterized by itching,
burning, or pain, and possibly a "fishy" smelling discharge.
Ovarian cysts - ANSWER-collections of fluid within a sac (cyst) in the ovary
Follicular cysts - ANSWER-transient condition in which the dominant follicle fails to rupture
corpus leutum cyst - ANSWER-Highly vascularized cysts formed by the granulosa cells left behind after
ovulation
Can rupture and cause hemorrhage
Dermoid cyst - ANSWER-ovarian teratomas that contain elements of all three germ layers. Have
malignant potential
Cervical cancer - ANSWER-Malignant cell growth in the cervix; can be caused by HPV virus. Normal
cervical cells change to dysplasia to carcinoma in situ and eventually invasive cancer. Predominantly
asymptomatic
Vulvar cancer - ANSWER--Usually squamous cell carcinoma
-Associated with HPV, increasing age, previous cancer, autoimmune conditions, and
immunosuppression
Endometrial cancer - ANSWER-malignant tumor of the endometrium (also called uterine cancer).
Primary risk factor is unopposed estrogen exposure (without progesterone). Manifested by abnormal
vaginal bleeding.
Ovarian cancer - ANSWER-malignant tumor of the ovary. Usually no early symptoms
Paraphimosis - ANSWER-condition in which a retracted foreskin cannot be pulled forward to cover the
glans
Phimosis - ANSWER-Inability to retract foreskin. Frequently caused by poor hygiene
Peyronie's disease - ANSWER-"Bent nail syndrome". Slow development of fibrous plaques in the
erectile tissue of the corpus cavernosa, causing lateral curvature of the penis during erection
Priapism - ANSWER-Prolonged erection. Urologic emergency. Have to drain blood from the penis.
Balantitis - ANSWER-Inflammation of the glans penis. Accumulation under the foreskin can irritate the
glans and lead to infection.
Category 1 prostatitis - ANSWER--acute bacterial prostatitis
-Ascending infection of the urinary tract
-infection stimulates an inflammatory response in which the prostate becomes enlarged, tender, firm,
or boggy
Category 2 prostatitis - ANSWER-chronic bacterial prostatitis. Recurrent urinary tract symptoms and
persistence of pathogenic bacteria in urine or prostatic fluid. Prostate may be fibrotic from frequent
infection.
Category 3 prostatitis - ANSWER-chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain. No pathogenic bacteria can
be localized to the prostate.
-category 3a- chronic pelvic pain syndrome with WBC count elevated and localized to prostate
-category 3b- noninflammatory
, Category 4 prostatitis - ANSWER-Asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis. There is an increase in
bacteria and WBC localized to the prostate.
GERD - ANSWER-Reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus
GERD symptoms - ANSWER--Heartburn 30-60 minutes after meals with reclining
-Relief with antacids
-Regurgitation/reflux
-Dysphagia
-Asthma
-Cough
-Laryngitis
-Sore throat
-Chest pain
Hiatal hernia - ANSWER-A condition in which a portion of the stomach protrudes upward into the
chest, through an opening in the diaphragm.
Peptic Ulcer Disease - ANSWER-A break or ulceration in the protective mucosal lining of the lower
esophagus, stomach, or duodenum.
-superficial: Erosions
Duodenal ulcers - ANSWER-Ulcers of the small intestine caused by NSAIDs and Helicobacter pylori
infection. Characterized by intermittent pain in the epigastric area
-relieved rapidly by ingestion of foods or antacids
Ulcerative colitis - ANSWER-a chronic condition of unknown cause in which repeated episodes of
inflammation in the rectum and large intestine cause ulcers and irritation.
Symptoms of ulcerative colitis - ANSWER-hematochezia, diarrhea with mucus/pus, tenesmus, rectal
urgency
Chron's disease - ANSWER-A chronic inflammatory bowel disease that affects the lining of the
digestive tract. Skip lesions. Ulcerations that can cause fissures that extend into the lymphatics.
Anemia may result from the malabsorption of B vitamins and folic acid.
Celiac disease - ANSWER-Gluten causes inflammation in the small intestine which leads to
malabsorption and decreased functionality. Bloating, chronic diarrhea, constipation, gas, loose stools,
nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain
Pancreatitis - ANSWER-Inflammation of the pancreas. Develops due to an obstruction of the outflow
of pancreatic enzymes caused by bile and pancreatic duct obstruction
Acute pancreatitis - ANSWER-May result from drugs, cellular injury from alcohol, or viral infection
-epigastric or midabdominal constant pain
Chronic pancreatitis - ANSWER-Process of progressive fibrotic destruction of the pancreas
Related to chronic alcohol abuse
Continuous or intermittent abdominal pain and weight loss are common
Risk factor for pancreatic cancer
Cirrhosis - ANSWER-irreversible, chronic, progressive degeneration of liver w/fibrosis. s/s: fatigue,
hepatomegaly, RUQ pain, jaundice, steatorrhea, clay-colored stools, ascities, hepatic encephalopathy.
Rx: steroids, vit B.
Alcoholic liver disease - ANSWER-A degenerative liver condition that occurs in three stages: (1) fatty
liver, (2) alcoholic hepatitis, and (3) cirrhosis.
