Issues and Debates
Gender Bias:
Universality and Universality and bias:
bias - Universality = underlying characteristic of human beings capable of being
applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing.
o Gender bias threaten universality of findings.
Gender bias Gender bias:
- Psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably
represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (mostly women).
Alpha bias Alpha bias:
- Psychological theories/research suggest there are real and enduring differences
between men and women – enhance or undervalue members of either sex, but
typically females.
- Such differences are considered fixed and inevitable.
- Example:
o Sociobiological theory of relationship formation (Wilson, 1975) –
human sexual attraction and behaviour is through the principle of
survival efficiency – males interest to impregnate as many women as
possible to increase chances of passing on genes – female interest to
preserve her genes and ensure healthy survive of offspring.
Sexual promiscuity in men is genetically determined, but in
women it is regarded as going against their nature =
exaggeration of differences.
Beta bias Beta bias:
- Theories/research ignore or minimise differences between the sexes.
- Underestimates the differences in men and women.
- Mostly occurs when female participants are not included as part of the
research.
- Examples:
o Kohlberg’s theory of moral development – research entirely based on
male principles but argued that it was universal for male and females –
female morality is different and based on ethic of care/responsibility of
others but male morality is based on abstract principles (Gilligan, 1981)
– but this argument is alpha bias – exaggerating differences in morality.
o Fight or light response – early research was exclusively on male animals
but assumed to be a universal response. But recently suggested that
female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight/flight response = shift
attention to caring for offspring (Taylor et al., 2000).
Androcentrism Androcentrism:
- Male-centred – when normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard.
- Any behaviour (e.g. female) that deviates from this standard is judged as
abnormal or inferior in comparison.
- Leads female behaviour being misjudged and misunderstood.
- Example:
o PMS stereotypes and trivialises the female experience – medicalises
female emotions, especially anger, in hormonal terms. But male anger
= rational response to external pressures (Brescoll & Uhlman, 2008).
o Freud’s theory can be considered androcentric as normal behaviour is
judged on male standards – reinforces that women are morally inferior
, (stereotype) and treats deviation from traditional sex-role behaviour as
deficient – suggested that women have weaker superego’s and
femininity is failed masculinity.
Strengths Use of reflexivity:
- Modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect of their own values
and assumptions have on their work. Embrace bias as a crucial and critical part
of the research process.
- E.g. Dambrin and Lambert (2008) – include reflection on how their female
related experiences influence their reading of events in their study on the lack
of women in executive positions.
- Reflexivity is important development in psychology – leads to greater
awareness of the role of personal biases – may shape research in the future.
Feminist psychology:
- Worrell and Remer (1992) – number of criteria put forward that need to be
adhered to in order to avoid gender bias in research:
o Women should be studied within meaningful real-life contexts and
genuinely participate in research (not objects of research).
o Diversity within groups should be examined not comparisons between
men and women.
o Greater emphasis placed on collaborative research methods that
collect qualitative, as opposed to numerical data.
- This is better for research as looking at diversity will show that not all
stereotypes apply to all females (may reduce stereotypes), outside of lab
contexts may produce more natural female behaviour and collaborative
research with qualitative data allowed for unexpected/non-fixed findings which
could counter existing views.
Weaknesses Implications of gender bias:
- Gender biased research can create misleading assumptions about female
behaviour and fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate
discriminatory practices.
- May provide justification to deny women opportunities societal or employment
opportunities (e.g. PMS research).
- Any domain in which men set the standard of normalcy = women feel
abnormal.
- Gender bias research is not just methodologically an issue but may have
damaging consequences, affecting the lives and prospects of real women.
Sexism within the research process:
- Lack of women in senior research levels = female concerns may not be reflected
in research questions.
- Male researchers are more likely to have work published in journals.
- Female participants may be placed in an inequitable relationship with a male
researcher who has a power to label them irrational and unable to complete
tasks.
- Psychology is guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates
bias in theory and research.
Essentialism:
- Many gender differences reported over the years are based on essentialist
perspective – gender is inevitable and fixed in nature.
, - E.g. in the 1930’s research revealed that intellectual activity such as attending
uni, would shrivel a woman’s ovaries.
- Creates a double-standard in the way that same behaviour is viewed from a
male and female perspective.
- E.g. Sociobiological theory = creates this double-standard surround sexual
promiscuity – it is fine for men but inappropriate for women.
EXAM 4 marks:
QUESTIONS Describe one example of psychological research that demonstrates alpha bias.
Describe one example of psychological research that demonstrates beta bias.
5 marks:
Explain what is meant by the term gender bias.
6 marks:
Outline what is meant by universality and bias in research.
Describe two examples of research accused of gender bias.
16 marks:
Discuss gender bias in psychological research. Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta
bias in your answer.
Discuss two or more examples of gender bias in psychological studies.
Cultural Bias:
Cultural bias Cultural bias:
- Refers to a tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena
though the lends of one’s own culture.
- In 1992, 64% of the world’s psychology researchers (N=56,000) were American
– but claimed universal findings.
Universality and Universality and bias:
bias - Mainstream psychology tends to ignore culture as an influence on human
behaviour – mistakenly assuming findings of one culture apply to all.
- But studies in Western cultures cannot straightforwardly apply to non-Western
cultures.
- E.g. classic social influence studies – Asch, Milgram – conducted with US
participants and reveal different results when replicated in other parts of the
world.
- Cultural bias occurs when behaviour is judged by the standpoint of one culture,
not considering cultural differences – so when cultures depart = considered
abnormal.
- Example of universality:
o Ekman – facial expressions – people from Western and pre-linguistic
African countries (no exposure to Western media to be influenced), as
well as blind babies, show the same facial expressions and can
recognise the same expressions = universal and recognised by all.
Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism:
- Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture.
- Extreme form = belief in the superiority of one’s own culture which may lead to
prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.
- Those cultures that do not conform to the standards of your own culture are
somehow considered deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.
Gender Bias:
Universality and Universality and bias:
bias - Universality = underlying characteristic of human beings capable of being
applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing.
o Gender bias threaten universality of findings.
Gender bias Gender bias:
- Psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably
represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (mostly women).
Alpha bias Alpha bias:
- Psychological theories/research suggest there are real and enduring differences
between men and women – enhance or undervalue members of either sex, but
typically females.
- Such differences are considered fixed and inevitable.
- Example:
o Sociobiological theory of relationship formation (Wilson, 1975) –
human sexual attraction and behaviour is through the principle of
survival efficiency – males interest to impregnate as many women as
possible to increase chances of passing on genes – female interest to
preserve her genes and ensure healthy survive of offspring.
Sexual promiscuity in men is genetically determined, but in
women it is regarded as going against their nature =
exaggeration of differences.
Beta bias Beta bias:
- Theories/research ignore or minimise differences between the sexes.
- Underestimates the differences in men and women.
- Mostly occurs when female participants are not included as part of the
research.
- Examples:
o Kohlberg’s theory of moral development – research entirely based on
male principles but argued that it was universal for male and females –
female morality is different and based on ethic of care/responsibility of
others but male morality is based on abstract principles (Gilligan, 1981)
– but this argument is alpha bias – exaggerating differences in morality.
o Fight or light response – early research was exclusively on male animals
but assumed to be a universal response. But recently suggested that
female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight/flight response = shift
attention to caring for offspring (Taylor et al., 2000).
Androcentrism Androcentrism:
- Male-centred – when normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard.
- Any behaviour (e.g. female) that deviates from this standard is judged as
abnormal or inferior in comparison.
- Leads female behaviour being misjudged and misunderstood.
- Example:
o PMS stereotypes and trivialises the female experience – medicalises
female emotions, especially anger, in hormonal terms. But male anger
= rational response to external pressures (Brescoll & Uhlman, 2008).
o Freud’s theory can be considered androcentric as normal behaviour is
judged on male standards – reinforces that women are morally inferior
, (stereotype) and treats deviation from traditional sex-role behaviour as
deficient – suggested that women have weaker superego’s and
femininity is failed masculinity.
Strengths Use of reflexivity:
- Modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect of their own values
and assumptions have on their work. Embrace bias as a crucial and critical part
of the research process.
- E.g. Dambrin and Lambert (2008) – include reflection on how their female
related experiences influence their reading of events in their study on the lack
of women in executive positions.
- Reflexivity is important development in psychology – leads to greater
awareness of the role of personal biases – may shape research in the future.
Feminist psychology:
- Worrell and Remer (1992) – number of criteria put forward that need to be
adhered to in order to avoid gender bias in research:
o Women should be studied within meaningful real-life contexts and
genuinely participate in research (not objects of research).
o Diversity within groups should be examined not comparisons between
men and women.
o Greater emphasis placed on collaborative research methods that
collect qualitative, as opposed to numerical data.
- This is better for research as looking at diversity will show that not all
stereotypes apply to all females (may reduce stereotypes), outside of lab
contexts may produce more natural female behaviour and collaborative
research with qualitative data allowed for unexpected/non-fixed findings which
could counter existing views.
Weaknesses Implications of gender bias:
- Gender biased research can create misleading assumptions about female
behaviour and fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate
discriminatory practices.
- May provide justification to deny women opportunities societal or employment
opportunities (e.g. PMS research).
- Any domain in which men set the standard of normalcy = women feel
abnormal.
- Gender bias research is not just methodologically an issue but may have
damaging consequences, affecting the lives and prospects of real women.
Sexism within the research process:
- Lack of women in senior research levels = female concerns may not be reflected
in research questions.
- Male researchers are more likely to have work published in journals.
- Female participants may be placed in an inequitable relationship with a male
researcher who has a power to label them irrational and unable to complete
tasks.
- Psychology is guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates
bias in theory and research.
Essentialism:
- Many gender differences reported over the years are based on essentialist
perspective – gender is inevitable and fixed in nature.
, - E.g. in the 1930’s research revealed that intellectual activity such as attending
uni, would shrivel a woman’s ovaries.
- Creates a double-standard in the way that same behaviour is viewed from a
male and female perspective.
- E.g. Sociobiological theory = creates this double-standard surround sexual
promiscuity – it is fine for men but inappropriate for women.
EXAM 4 marks:
QUESTIONS Describe one example of psychological research that demonstrates alpha bias.
Describe one example of psychological research that demonstrates beta bias.
5 marks:
Explain what is meant by the term gender bias.
6 marks:
Outline what is meant by universality and bias in research.
Describe two examples of research accused of gender bias.
16 marks:
Discuss gender bias in psychological research. Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta
bias in your answer.
Discuss two or more examples of gender bias in psychological studies.
Cultural Bias:
Cultural bias Cultural bias:
- Refers to a tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena
though the lends of one’s own culture.
- In 1992, 64% of the world’s psychology researchers (N=56,000) were American
– but claimed universal findings.
Universality and Universality and bias:
bias - Mainstream psychology tends to ignore culture as an influence on human
behaviour – mistakenly assuming findings of one culture apply to all.
- But studies in Western cultures cannot straightforwardly apply to non-Western
cultures.
- E.g. classic social influence studies – Asch, Milgram – conducted with US
participants and reveal different results when replicated in other parts of the
world.
- Cultural bias occurs when behaviour is judged by the standpoint of one culture,
not considering cultural differences – so when cultures depart = considered
abnormal.
- Example of universality:
o Ekman – facial expressions – people from Western and pre-linguistic
African countries (no exposure to Western media to be influenced), as
well as blind babies, show the same facial expressions and can
recognise the same expressions = universal and recognised by all.
Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism:
- Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture.
- Extreme form = belief in the superiority of one’s own culture which may lead to
prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.
- Those cultures that do not conform to the standards of your own culture are
somehow considered deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.
