Chapter 3: the building blocks of a discipline
and a practice
2. Elements of the communication process
2.1 Communicator
The starting point for communication often rests with a communicator or sender who sends out a
message with information. The sending of a message is not always meant or consciously intended by
the sender. Blushing, for example, is something that you do not have under control, but it still sends a
message of shame, shyness, or unease. It is impossible for us not to communicate: even saying
nothing is a form of communication.
The communicator can be an individual or a group. Based on this distinction, we can define different
forms of communication, such as interpersonal communication or mass communication.
Communication among individuals allows feedback. Feedback refers to the way that the
communicator is influenced by the reaction of the receiver of the message. Feedback is often given
unconsciously in the form of non-verbal communication. The communicator can also try to anticipate
the reaction of the receiver, this is feedforward.
The communicator will also make a selection during the communication process. Not everything can
or will be transmitted. The receiver needs to know that the sender is present in the communication
process, a phenomenon that is referred to as co-presence. This aspect is linked to the importance of
non-verbal communication, since, for example, body language can often be an additional source of
information. This is meta-language.
2.2 Message
The purpose of communication is to transmit a particular message. The message is ‘the main
information content of an utterance or text’. To achieve this, the internal conscious content is
translated or coded into signs, which are the carriers of meaning. This is a process of externalization.
Can we still speak of communication if a message is not received or recognized by others? For
example, writing down the deepest thoughts in your diary. In theory, this fits the definition of a
message, you externalize (=write down) conscious content (= your thoughts), but your diary is
normally not seen by anyone other than the communicator himself.
It is generally agreed that if the possibility exists that someone at some point in time will be able to
receive the message, we can reasonably speak of a communication process.
Different levels can be distinguished for analysis of a message; referential, expressive, relational, and
appealing.
2.2.1 The referential or content aspect
This refers to the first layer of meaning or the purposeful content of a message. A message involves
the use of signs and symbols that refer to something other. It is a representation, ‘a constructed
pattern or design that describes or stands for something else’. The language that we use is therefore
largely representational, it represents a concept. On the other hand, a message can also be
referential when the sign refers to something of material nature.
2.2.2 The expressive or form aspect
This is about influencing. The form of the message has a significant impact on the way the content
aspect is processed by the receiver. For example, the layout of a text, or the tone of a speaker’s voice.
This is important because it is often not possible to identify the meaning of the sender based on the
first level of content alone.
, 2.2.3 The relational or appealing aspect
The communicator’s use of language can indicate how he views his social relationship with the
receiver ( in Dutch, for example, u or jij?). This relational aspect can be expressed explicitly and
verbally, but often it is done implicitly and non-verbally.
2.3 Encoding and decoding
The essence of some arguments is that we communicate based on a pre-agreed code, in which we
then encode the message. How a set of signs is organized in a system is what we generally refer to as
a code. Every code consists of two elements: its units (for example, the letters ‘a’ to ‘z’) and its
patterns (rules relating to the use). Danesi makes a further distinction between digital and analog
codes. In digital or conventional codes, such as letters and numbers there is no gradation in the
intensity of meaning. It is not necessary to make any comparison between sign and meaning, because
this relationship has already been pre-agreed upon by the users. In contrast, analog or natural codes,
such as visual or pictorial language, make it possible to introduce gradations of meaning intensity. This
type of code is more situation-related.
Hall splits the coding process into two phases: coding by the communicator, encoding, and coding by
the receiver, decoding. This means that the sender and the receiver need to have a common code if
they wish to communicate successfully.
Encoding is the translation by the communicator of the content of a message into symbols or signs.
Decoding is always a dual process. It involves the concrete decoding of the specific code used by the
sender, as well as the interpretation of the message. This phase of interpretation allows the receiver
to decode the message in one of three ways.
(1) Firstly, the receiver may opt for dominant or hegemonic decoding, also known as preferred
reading. The receiver accepts the meaning and regards this interpretation of the message as
begin natural and transparent.
(2) Secondly, the receiver may opt for an aberrant, opposite, or counter-hegemonic reading. The
receiver gives a different or divergent meaning to the message than the one intended by the
sender.
(3) Thirdly, the receiver may opt for a negotiated reading. The reading of the receiver will
generally be fairly similar to the preferred reading of the communicator, although this latter
interpretation may be adjusted to reflect the specific situation or specific experiences, values,
and norms.
Concerning the communicator, account must also be taken of the concept of media logic. Media
producers are bound by certain professional codes, conventions, and public expectations, which
means that it is unacceptable for them to communicate whatever they like. In many cases, receivers
are happy to passively accept the preferred reading of the communicator.
2.4 Transmission, channel, and medium
Transmission is the sending of an encoded message by the communicator to the receiver. The
transmission of a message requires a channel. This is the material or physical carrier of the message.
Depending on the level of abstraction of the communication model, some authors make a distinction
between a channel and a signal. The channel is the carrier of a signal. In turn, the signal is the carrier
of the disseminator of a sign. A sign is a carrier of meaning.
Many other authors make a distinction between a channel and a medium. Both concepts refer in
essence to how a message is communicated to the public. Channel is a general overarching term,
whereas the term medium should be reserved specifically for the technical and artificial variants of a
channel. Based on this distinction, it is possible to define different forms of communication. For
example, interpersonal or face-to-face communication primarily makes use of a natural or
biological channel, whereas media communication exploits communication processes that make use
of a medium.
and a practice
2. Elements of the communication process
2.1 Communicator
The starting point for communication often rests with a communicator or sender who sends out a
message with information. The sending of a message is not always meant or consciously intended by
the sender. Blushing, for example, is something that you do not have under control, but it still sends a
message of shame, shyness, or unease. It is impossible for us not to communicate: even saying
nothing is a form of communication.
The communicator can be an individual or a group. Based on this distinction, we can define different
forms of communication, such as interpersonal communication or mass communication.
Communication among individuals allows feedback. Feedback refers to the way that the
communicator is influenced by the reaction of the receiver of the message. Feedback is often given
unconsciously in the form of non-verbal communication. The communicator can also try to anticipate
the reaction of the receiver, this is feedforward.
The communicator will also make a selection during the communication process. Not everything can
or will be transmitted. The receiver needs to know that the sender is present in the communication
process, a phenomenon that is referred to as co-presence. This aspect is linked to the importance of
non-verbal communication, since, for example, body language can often be an additional source of
information. This is meta-language.
2.2 Message
The purpose of communication is to transmit a particular message. The message is ‘the main
information content of an utterance or text’. To achieve this, the internal conscious content is
translated or coded into signs, which are the carriers of meaning. This is a process of externalization.
Can we still speak of communication if a message is not received or recognized by others? For
example, writing down the deepest thoughts in your diary. In theory, this fits the definition of a
message, you externalize (=write down) conscious content (= your thoughts), but your diary is
normally not seen by anyone other than the communicator himself.
It is generally agreed that if the possibility exists that someone at some point in time will be able to
receive the message, we can reasonably speak of a communication process.
Different levels can be distinguished for analysis of a message; referential, expressive, relational, and
appealing.
2.2.1 The referential or content aspect
This refers to the first layer of meaning or the purposeful content of a message. A message involves
the use of signs and symbols that refer to something other. It is a representation, ‘a constructed
pattern or design that describes or stands for something else’. The language that we use is therefore
largely representational, it represents a concept. On the other hand, a message can also be
referential when the sign refers to something of material nature.
2.2.2 The expressive or form aspect
This is about influencing. The form of the message has a significant impact on the way the content
aspect is processed by the receiver. For example, the layout of a text, or the tone of a speaker’s voice.
This is important because it is often not possible to identify the meaning of the sender based on the
first level of content alone.
, 2.2.3 The relational or appealing aspect
The communicator’s use of language can indicate how he views his social relationship with the
receiver ( in Dutch, for example, u or jij?). This relational aspect can be expressed explicitly and
verbally, but often it is done implicitly and non-verbally.
2.3 Encoding and decoding
The essence of some arguments is that we communicate based on a pre-agreed code, in which we
then encode the message. How a set of signs is organized in a system is what we generally refer to as
a code. Every code consists of two elements: its units (for example, the letters ‘a’ to ‘z’) and its
patterns (rules relating to the use). Danesi makes a further distinction between digital and analog
codes. In digital or conventional codes, such as letters and numbers there is no gradation in the
intensity of meaning. It is not necessary to make any comparison between sign and meaning, because
this relationship has already been pre-agreed upon by the users. In contrast, analog or natural codes,
such as visual or pictorial language, make it possible to introduce gradations of meaning intensity. This
type of code is more situation-related.
Hall splits the coding process into two phases: coding by the communicator, encoding, and coding by
the receiver, decoding. This means that the sender and the receiver need to have a common code if
they wish to communicate successfully.
Encoding is the translation by the communicator of the content of a message into symbols or signs.
Decoding is always a dual process. It involves the concrete decoding of the specific code used by the
sender, as well as the interpretation of the message. This phase of interpretation allows the receiver
to decode the message in one of three ways.
(1) Firstly, the receiver may opt for dominant or hegemonic decoding, also known as preferred
reading. The receiver accepts the meaning and regards this interpretation of the message as
begin natural and transparent.
(2) Secondly, the receiver may opt for an aberrant, opposite, or counter-hegemonic reading. The
receiver gives a different or divergent meaning to the message than the one intended by the
sender.
(3) Thirdly, the receiver may opt for a negotiated reading. The reading of the receiver will
generally be fairly similar to the preferred reading of the communicator, although this latter
interpretation may be adjusted to reflect the specific situation or specific experiences, values,
and norms.
Concerning the communicator, account must also be taken of the concept of media logic. Media
producers are bound by certain professional codes, conventions, and public expectations, which
means that it is unacceptable for them to communicate whatever they like. In many cases, receivers
are happy to passively accept the preferred reading of the communicator.
2.4 Transmission, channel, and medium
Transmission is the sending of an encoded message by the communicator to the receiver. The
transmission of a message requires a channel. This is the material or physical carrier of the message.
Depending on the level of abstraction of the communication model, some authors make a distinction
between a channel and a signal. The channel is the carrier of a signal. In turn, the signal is the carrier
of the disseminator of a sign. A sign is a carrier of meaning.
Many other authors make a distinction between a channel and a medium. Both concepts refer in
essence to how a message is communicated to the public. Channel is a general overarching term,
whereas the term medium should be reserved specifically for the technical and artificial variants of a
channel. Based on this distinction, it is possible to define different forms of communication. For
example, interpersonal or face-to-face communication primarily makes use of a natural or
biological channel, whereas media communication exploits communication processes that make use
of a medium.
