Problem 1 – Landy & Conte, Specter
I-O Psychology: industrial organizational psychology
Motivation: conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality, and direction of
ongoing behavior.
Direction: choice of specific behaviors from a large number of possible behaviors ex. Choosing to
do extra volunteer work that requires overtime
Intensity: amount of effort a person expends at doing a task ex. Sweeping the floor fast or slow
Persistence: continuing engagement in a behavior over time ex. Studying to pass the bar for a long
time
Motivation is also concerned with the desire to acquire or achieve a goal, derives from what the
person wants, desires. Ex. Money
History:
- Instinct by Freud: inborn tendencies that direct behavior but proved useless because it’s
circular and only emphasized on internal causes
- Instead Maslow proposed a need theory (1943). Needs were thought to be inborn and
universal in humans and drives were the nonhuman equivalent of motives and needs. This
theory allowed environment to play a role.
- Skinner: behaviorist approach, emphasis just on environment
- Lewin’s Field Theory: forces in the psychological environment interact and combine to yield
a final course of action – group dynamics
- Today: mostly emotional and cognitive
Motivation and personality:
Neuroticism was correlated negatively (emotionally unstable)
Conscientiousness was correlated positively to performance motivation
LOC: locus of control. Internal LOC’s believe they can control their environments and external
LOC’s believe they have little ability to influence external environments. Work motivation and
internal LOC is positively correlated.
Work motivation theories can be described along a continuum from distal to proximal.
- Distal motivation theories deal with the processes that are far removed from the behavior
ex. Need theories because they deal with general needs that can be translated into
behavior.
- Proximal motivation theories deal with processes that are close to behavior ex. Goal-
setting theories because it deals with goals that lead to specific behaviors.
1) Need Theories:
All humans have a basic set of needs and that these needs express themselves over the life span of
the individual as internal pushes or drives. Needs can differ both within the same person over time
and across different people.
Need Hierarchy Theory (Maslow): It proposes 5 different sets of needs arranges hierarchically that
includes physical, social and psychological needs.
, 1. Physiological needs: basic physical needs for survival, satisfied by such things as food,
water, sleep
2. Security needs: an individual has to produce a secure environment free of threats to
continue existing, shelter
3. Love or social needs: associated with interpersonal factors, the desire to be accepted by
others, need for love, affection and affiliation
4. Esteem needs: involves self-respect and the respect of others
5. Self-actualization needs: fulfilling personal life goals and reaching one’s potential to the
fullest
When an individual’s physiological and security needs are fulfilled, the person would expand his
energy attempting to fulfill the love needs and so on. If a lower level that has once been satisfied
reemerge, the person immediately reverts actions to that level. If two levels of needs are unmeet
the lower one dominates. However, there can be exceptions and certain people might find certain
high-order needs to be more important.
This model fits the person-as-machine metaphor as the person’s behavior is automatic and
unconscious. Maslow also proposes that all individuals operate in the same manner so this theory
is universal.
Criticism:
- The statement of theory is rather vague so it’s difficult to design good test of it.
- It lacks empirical support.
Modifications:
Two-factor theory (Herzberg): there are really 2 basic needs not 5 and they don’t need to be
hierarchically arranged. The 2 needs are:
1. Hygiene needs (Maslow’s psychical and secure needs): job aspects relevant to animal
needs that include pay, supervision coworkers and organizational policies.
2. Motivator needs (Maslow’s social, self-esteem and actualization needs). Job aspects
relevant to growth needs that include achievement, recognition, responsibility and the
nature of the work itself. Meeting hygiene needs eliminates dissatisfaction but wouldn’t
result in motivated behavior. But meeting motivator needs results in motivation and
positive satisfaction with work.
Reinforcement Theory (Skinner): describes how rewards or reinforcements can affect behavior.
The theory doesn’t deal with internal states such as motivation. Behavior is seen as a response to
the environment.
- Law of effect: the probability of a particular behavior increases if it is followed by a reward/
reinforcement and conversely the probability decreases after a punishment.
- When a reward depends on a response it is called a contingent reward. Intermittent
rewards (only a portion of correct responses are rewarded) produce higher levels of
performance than continuous rewards (every time a correct response occurs, reward).
- Rewards can be tangible (money) or intangible (praise). Both can be equally reinforcing.
- This is the basis of incentive systems in which rewards are contingent on individual units of
productivity. However, with many jobs it is not possible to develop incentive systems ex.
School teachers
I-O Psychology: industrial organizational psychology
Motivation: conditions responsible for variations in intensity, persistence, quality, and direction of
ongoing behavior.
Direction: choice of specific behaviors from a large number of possible behaviors ex. Choosing to
do extra volunteer work that requires overtime
Intensity: amount of effort a person expends at doing a task ex. Sweeping the floor fast or slow
Persistence: continuing engagement in a behavior over time ex. Studying to pass the bar for a long
time
Motivation is also concerned with the desire to acquire or achieve a goal, derives from what the
person wants, desires. Ex. Money
History:
- Instinct by Freud: inborn tendencies that direct behavior but proved useless because it’s
circular and only emphasized on internal causes
- Instead Maslow proposed a need theory (1943). Needs were thought to be inborn and
universal in humans and drives were the nonhuman equivalent of motives and needs. This
theory allowed environment to play a role.
- Skinner: behaviorist approach, emphasis just on environment
- Lewin’s Field Theory: forces in the psychological environment interact and combine to yield
a final course of action – group dynamics
- Today: mostly emotional and cognitive
Motivation and personality:
Neuroticism was correlated negatively (emotionally unstable)
Conscientiousness was correlated positively to performance motivation
LOC: locus of control. Internal LOC’s believe they can control their environments and external
LOC’s believe they have little ability to influence external environments. Work motivation and
internal LOC is positively correlated.
Work motivation theories can be described along a continuum from distal to proximal.
- Distal motivation theories deal with the processes that are far removed from the behavior
ex. Need theories because they deal with general needs that can be translated into
behavior.
- Proximal motivation theories deal with processes that are close to behavior ex. Goal-
setting theories because it deals with goals that lead to specific behaviors.
1) Need Theories:
All humans have a basic set of needs and that these needs express themselves over the life span of
the individual as internal pushes or drives. Needs can differ both within the same person over time
and across different people.
Need Hierarchy Theory (Maslow): It proposes 5 different sets of needs arranges hierarchically that
includes physical, social and psychological needs.
, 1. Physiological needs: basic physical needs for survival, satisfied by such things as food,
water, sleep
2. Security needs: an individual has to produce a secure environment free of threats to
continue existing, shelter
3. Love or social needs: associated with interpersonal factors, the desire to be accepted by
others, need for love, affection and affiliation
4. Esteem needs: involves self-respect and the respect of others
5. Self-actualization needs: fulfilling personal life goals and reaching one’s potential to the
fullest
When an individual’s physiological and security needs are fulfilled, the person would expand his
energy attempting to fulfill the love needs and so on. If a lower level that has once been satisfied
reemerge, the person immediately reverts actions to that level. If two levels of needs are unmeet
the lower one dominates. However, there can be exceptions and certain people might find certain
high-order needs to be more important.
This model fits the person-as-machine metaphor as the person’s behavior is automatic and
unconscious. Maslow also proposes that all individuals operate in the same manner so this theory
is universal.
Criticism:
- The statement of theory is rather vague so it’s difficult to design good test of it.
- It lacks empirical support.
Modifications:
Two-factor theory (Herzberg): there are really 2 basic needs not 5 and they don’t need to be
hierarchically arranged. The 2 needs are:
1. Hygiene needs (Maslow’s psychical and secure needs): job aspects relevant to animal
needs that include pay, supervision coworkers and organizational policies.
2. Motivator needs (Maslow’s social, self-esteem and actualization needs). Job aspects
relevant to growth needs that include achievement, recognition, responsibility and the
nature of the work itself. Meeting hygiene needs eliminates dissatisfaction but wouldn’t
result in motivated behavior. But meeting motivator needs results in motivation and
positive satisfaction with work.
Reinforcement Theory (Skinner): describes how rewards or reinforcements can affect behavior.
The theory doesn’t deal with internal states such as motivation. Behavior is seen as a response to
the environment.
- Law of effect: the probability of a particular behavior increases if it is followed by a reward/
reinforcement and conversely the probability decreases after a punishment.
- When a reward depends on a response it is called a contingent reward. Intermittent
rewards (only a portion of correct responses are rewarded) produce higher levels of
performance than continuous rewards (every time a correct response occurs, reward).
- Rewards can be tangible (money) or intangible (praise). Both can be equally reinforcing.
- This is the basis of incentive systems in which rewards are contingent on individual units of
productivity. However, with many jobs it is not possible to develop incentive systems ex.
School teachers
